<p>North Manitou Island is located in Lake Michigan, approximately 12 mi west-northwest of Leland, Michigan. It is nearly eight miles long and over four miles  wide, with 20 mi of shoreline. It has a land area of 57.876 km  and has no population. The smaller South Manitou Island lies to its southwest.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>North Manitou Island is shaped like an upside-down teardrop, with the now-forested body of the drop surrounding Lake Manitou, and the tail of the drop narrowing into sandy, exposed Dimmicks Point on the islands southeastern extremity. The ferry dock and ranger station are on the island&#39;s central eastern shore, directly east of Lake Manitou.</p><br>
<p>The island is in Leelanau County and is part of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, although it is over 6 mi offshore. Park passes and camping fees are required. The island can be accessed by a ferry service from Leland; private watercraft are permitted with limited docking. No wheeled vehicles are allowed on the island other than those used by the National Park Service or to cart off a dead deer. No campfires are allowed on the island except at public firepits near the ranger station. Similarly there is only one water spigot, and one outhouse, in the same area.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Before 1900</h3><br>
<p>A legend attributed to the Ojibwe explains the origin of the Manitou Islands and the Sleeping Bear Dunes. Long ago, the mother bear Mishe Mokwa and her two cubs sought to cross Lake Michigan from the Wisconsin shore to escape a great forest fire. The mother bear made it across, but her twin cubs, although they swam hard behind her, drowned in Lake Michigan. The great spirit covered them with sand to form the two Manitou islands. The mother bear lies and waits forever for her cubs to reach the shore - the Sleeping Bear Dunes. Most archeologists believe early habitation by Native Americans was only temporary due to the island&#39;s scarcity of natural resources and the abundance of resources on the mainland. Despite this, there are signs of activity by Native Americans and some of the earliest archeological sites ever found in Michigan are located there. This includes seven sites, mostly on the east side. These sites date back to between 8,000 and 600 BC. Items found include: stone and flint tools, a copper awl, pottery and the remains of a canoe.</p><br>
<p>The initial European settlements were built by wood cutters supplying the fleet of the Great Lakes wood-burning steamers with cord wood. Nicholas Pickard was probably the first (between 1842 and 1846). Interestingly, there is no record that Mr. Pickard actually owned any land on North Manitou when he began cutting wood there. It is important to keep in mind that while the record is clear that a wood-cutting station was established first on South Manitou, many travelers who have left written accounts did not make it clear which island they visited. Over 150 years later it can be difficult, if not impossible, to tell whether some stories of visiting "the Manitous" refer to North or South. Margaret Fullers well known Summer on the Lakes, in 1843, for example, very probably recounts a visit to South Manitou. Piers were constructed on the eastern and western sides of the island for the steamers to load wood while traveling up and down Lake Michigan.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>After the passing of the wood-burning steamers, there were several more woodcutting eras on the island - for sawn boards and raw logs. Among others there was the Smith & Hull operation on the west side (1906 to 1917), Peter Stormer&#39;s east side and north end, a World War II era sawmill (near the site of the old dock in the Settlement), and The Lake Michigan Hardwood Company sawmill and later raw log cutting. Smith & Hull also operated a standard gauge logging railroad, the "Manitou Limited", running northeast 8 miles out of Crescent using two shay locomotives, from July 12, 1909, until 1915 when the timber ran out.</p><br>
<p>Some island settlers turned to farming, growing apples and cherries; remnants of these orchards can still be seen. From the late 1940s through the 1960s, the William R. Angell Foundation, which owned most of the island, used the imported deer population as an economic resource, hosting hunters. The Foundation artificially supported an abundant deer population with commercial salt blocks and custom feed manufactured by Kellogg Company. The deer pruned the island&#39;s forests, giving an open, park-like feeling to even the deepest woods. A 4,000 ft lighted runway, now a field in "The Settlement" on the eastern side of the island, next to the designated camping grounds and firepits, was used to bring in the hunters.</p><br>
<p>A summer colony grew on the east side of the island starting in the late 19th century. A group of successful Chicago businessmen built cottages (some of which remain on "Cottage Row"). The National Park Service occupies the old US Life-Saving Station (later, of course, the US Coast Guard) grounds near where the Leland boat lands campers. At the south end of the island was a lighthouse, built in 1896, automated in 1932, discontinued in 1938 and destroyed in 1942.</p><br>
<p>After the foundation sold most of the island to the United States government, the deer population declined due to the lack of artificial feed. The woods have grown up, many clearings are being obliterated; previously open space is rapidly being taken over by the woods. Now, after decades of regrowth, it is hard to spot any deer at all. All buildings built after the 1950s have been slated for demolition or have already been torn down.</p><br>
<p>Though at various times it was the less populated of the Manitou islands, apple and cherry orchards were planted during its settlement period. Now uninhabited except by the rotating National Park ranger and maintenance crews assigned there, the homesteads and most of the buildings of the island&#39;s former settlers lie in varying states of ruin. Various buildings are shored up during the summer months. There is a cemetery in the southeast of the island where some of the island’s former inhabitants are buried.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The Manitou islands are surrounded by over 50 known shipwrecks; a few of these are popular (and protected) diving spots.</p><br>
<p>The island has a system of trails, the remnants of the island&#39;s unpaved roads. On the west side of the island one may still walk the "old grade" - the roadbed of the Smith & Hull logging railroad. Wilderness camping is permitted throughout the island, and there are several designated camping sites near the ranger station at the dock. Filtered water is available at the ranger station, with limited natural inland water sources. There is one sizeable inland lake, Lake Manitou, suitable for fishing, and another, Tamarack Lake, which is now essentially a cedar swamp. The island is flanked by dunes on its northwest and southwest sides.</p><br>
<p>Island mammals include coyote, beaver, white-tailed deer, and eastern chipmunk. The raccoon population died out due to disease shortly before 2002. Numerous songbirds and waterfowl can be seen; of particular note is the endangered piping plover, which nests here. Human disturbance of the nesting area (near Dimmick’s Point) is disastrous to successful reproduction. Therefore, the Dimmick’s Point area is closed to hikers from May 1st through August 15th of each year. Bald eagles are commonly seen, especially during spring and early summer nesting season. Garter snakes are abundant on the island. There is an annual deer hunting season to limit the size of the population.</p><br>
<p>South Manitou Island is located in Lake Michigan, approximately 16 mi west of Leland, Michigan. It is part of Leelanau County and the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. The uninhabited island is 8.277 square miles in land area and can be accessed by a ferry service from Leland. Guided tours on open-air vehicles are available to visitors, but most traffic is on foot. Larger North Manitou Island lies to its north.</p><br>
<p>The island is 3 mi wide and 3 mi long. It is part of an island chain that extends north to the Straits of Mackinac. The island consists of a ridge of tilted layers of limestone, buried under a blanket of glacial debris. Glaciers carved out the Lake Michigan basin. When the basin filled with water, the peaks of the ridge remained exposed as islands. During post-glacial times, winds blowing on the high, sandy bluffs on the west side of the island moved sand inland, forming sand dunes. Florence Lake is the island&#39;s only inland lake. The island has a system of trails and campsites.</p><br>
<p>A growth of Northern white cedars on the southwestern corner of the island are among the oldest and largest in the world. The largest is 18 ft around and is estimated to be over 500 years old.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>South Manitou Island was originally settled in the mid-1830s by William Burton to provide cord wood to fuel the Great Lakes steamships. His dock was built in the middle of the crescent-shaped bay on the eastern side of the island, which offered the only natural deep-water harbor between Chicago and Buffalo. In 1847, the village included Burton&#39;s Wharf, a house, blacksmith shop, grocery store, barn, and a wooden tamarack railroad track extending from the dock inland to haul wood for the steamers. When the first post office opened in 1870, it was located here. When logging operations ended and the dock fell into disrepair, the original island village dwindled in size and importance. Burdick’s moved their general store from its original location near the old dock to a site near the Lifesaving station in 1923 on the southeastern shore, and that marked the shift of the island community to the current village site located at the present dock where the passenger ferry arrives.</p><br>
<p>Farming developed slowly on the island, but by 1870 most islanders were self-sufficient farmers. Surplus crops were sold to passing ships and mainland markets. The isolation of the island provided an ideal environment for growing prize-winning rye, beans and peas. Today, there are no active farms on the island, but farm buildings, abandoned machinery, the old school and cemetery are reminders of the past. The island is now uninhabited, and most of its buildings lie in ruins.</p><br>
<h2>Lighthouse and Life-Saving Service Station</h2><br>
<p>South Manitou Island was popular in the 19th and 20th centuries as a harbor and fueling station. With the completion of the Erie Canal in 1826, the development of commercial navigation on the Great Lakes increased rapidly. The Manitou Passage was the most important route for schooners and steamers traveling the 300 mile length of Lake Michigan. The island was a stop for early mariners between Chicago and the Straits of Mackinac.</p><br>
<p>To guide storm-driven ships, Congress appropriated $5,000 in 1838 for the construction of a lighthouse. Construction began in 1839, but very little is known about this first lighthouse on South Manitou Island. The specifications were the same as for the Old Presque Isle lighthouse, which included a 30-foot circular tower and a stone keeper&#39;s dwelling, but written accounts describe a 1.5 story house with a light tower on one gable end. No sketches or photos exist to determine what was actually built. The location of the light was on a 30-foot sandy knoll near the shore close to the location of the present lighthouse, but the exact location is not known.</p><br>
<p>In 1858, the USA Lighthouse Establishment recognized the need for greater safety and replaced this house with a two-story brick residence with a 35-foot tower on top. The tower housed a Fourth Order Fresnel lens. A fog signal building was added and both structures still stand today.</p><br>
<p>The increased shipping traffic brought changes and in 1871, a 100-foot tower was built. The tower is 18 feet in diameter at the base. The walls are hollow and 5 feet thick at the base tapering to 3 feet thick at the top. A passageway was added connecting the tower to the keeper&#39;s dwelling. A Third Order Fresnel lens from Paris was installed with a 3-wick lamp that had a range of 18 miles. In 1875, the first steam fog signal on Lake Michigan was installed replacing the fog bell. The 100 foot lighthouse was in operation from 1871 to 1958. The lighthouse is still in good condition. Recent efforts have restored its light tower to operational status for the summer months.</p><br>
<p>In 1901, the United States Life-Saving Service built a station on the island. The USLSS became part of the United States Coast Guard in 1915. The station was permanently closed in 1958. This station is now the island&#39;s ranger station and is not open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Shipwrecks</h2><br>
<p>The Manitou islands are surrounded by over 50 known shipwreck sites, some of which are popular diving spots. A preserve was established in 1988 to conserve the historic and archeological value of the fifty known shipwreck sites, dating from 1835 to 1960. One such shipwreck is the, which grounded and became a total loss in 1960 off the south shore of the island. She ran over the wreck of the bulk freighter, stranded November 4, 1903, with a cargo of corn and general merchandise.</p><br>
<p>The eastern side of the island is dominated by a large round bay. This bay is deep until very close to shore. On more than one occasion, ships found here a safe port in a storm, even some of the large bulk carriers. During the "Big Blow" of 1913, Captain John Stufflebeam nosed the bow of the passenger/packet steamer Illinois up onto the beach. He kept the engines going full for 49 hours so the wind would not blow the vessel back out to sea, until he was able to send two seamen ashore to fasten to a stout tree. When the storm abated 24 hours later, he untied from the tree, put his engines in reverse and backed away from shore to proceed safely on his journey.</p><br>
<p>The Allegheny Portage Railroad was the first railroad constructed through the Allegheny Mountains in central Pennsylvania, United States; it operated from 1834 to 1854 as the first transportation infrastructure through the gaps of the Allegheny that connected the midwest to the eastern seaboard across the barrier range of the Allegheny Front. Authorized as part of the Main Line of Public Works legislation in 1824, it was a series of ten inclines connecting to a branch of the Pennsylvania Canal at either end, approximately 36 mi long overall. It had five inclines on either side of the drainage divide running athwart the ridge line from Blair Gap through along the kinked saddle at the summit into Cresson, Pennsylvania. The Portage Railroad utilized cleverly designed wheeled barges to ride a narrow-gauge rail track with steam-powered stationary engines lifting the vehicles. Except for peak moments of severe storms, it was an all-weather, all-seasons operation. Along with the rest of the Main Works, it cut transport time from Philadelphia to the Ohio River from weeks to just 3–5 days. The roadbed of the railroad did not incline monotonically upwards, but rose in relatively long, saw-toothed stretches of slightly-sloped flat terrain suitable to animal powered towing, alternating with steep cable railway inclined planes using static steam engine powered windlasses, similar to mechanisms of modern ski lifts.</p><br>
<p>It connected two canal divisions of the Main Line of Public Works of the Pennsylvania Canal System, from Johnstown on the west through the relative flats to Hollidaysburg on the east, thus allowing continuous barge traffic between the Ohio and the Susquehanna Rivers. Considered a technological marvel in its day, it played a critical role in opening the interior of the United States beyond the Appalachian Mountains to settlement and commerce. It included the first railroad tunnel in the United States, the Staple Bend Tunnel, and its inauguration was marked with great fanfare.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Construction of the railroad began in 1831 and took three years to complete. The project was financed by the State of Pennsylvania as a means to compete with the Erie Canal in New York and the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in Maryland. The work was done largely through private contractors. The railroad used ten cable inclined planes, five on either side of the summit of the Allegheny Ridge. The vertical ascent from Johnstown was 1,172 ft. The vertical ascent from Hollidaysburg was 1,399 ft. The barges were drawn by horses along level sections, which included a tunnel 900 ft long as well as a viaduct over the Little Conemaugh River upstream from Johnstown. The entire Main Line system connecting Pittsburgh and Philadelphia was 400 mi long.</p><br>
<p>A typical voyage took between six and seven hours. Charles Dickens wrote a contemporary account of travel on the railroad in Chapter 10 of his American Notes.</p><br>
<p>In 1854 the portage railroad was rendered obsolete by the advance of railway technology – more powerful locomotives allowed construction by the Pennsylvania Railroad of a railroad over the Alleghenies. Construction on the New Portage Railroad, a $2.14 million realignment to bypass the inclines, continued despite this, opening in 1856. In 1854 the Legislature chartered the Pennsylvania Railroad to cross the entire state in response to a petition by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad that would enable it to reach the Ohio; the PRR raised sufficient investment and had enough quick success that they bought the Portage Railroad and other parts of the Main Line of Public Works from the state on July 31, 1857. The PRR abandoned most of the line and used the rest as local branches.</p><br>
<p>Nearly half a century later, the graded roadbeds of the descending section east of the Gallitzin Tunnel were re-railed with standard gauge freight tracks. The line reopened as a freight bypass line in 1904.</p><br>
<p>Pennsylvania Railroad successor Conrail abandoned this line to Hollidaysburg and most of the branch trackage along the Juniata River in 1981 and removed the rails.</p><br>
<h2>National Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>Today, the remains of the railroad are preserved within the Allegheny Portage Railroad National Historic Site operated by the National Park Service. The site was established on 1,296 acre in 1964 and is about 12 mi west of Altoona, in Blair and Cambria counties.</p><br>
<p>The park service operates a visitor center with interpretive exhibits near the old line. Nearby is the Samuel Lemon House, a tavern located alongside the railroad near Cresson that was a popular stop for railroad passengers; it has been converted into a historical museum by the National Park Service. The NPS also maintains a length of reconstructed track, an engine house with exhibits, a picnic area, and hiking trails.</p><br>
<p>A skew arch bridge, a masterwork of cut stone construction, is another feature of the site near the Lemon House. The bridge is 60.4 ft long on the south elevation, 54.9 ft long on the north elevation, and 22.2 ft high. It was the only bridge on the line that was built to carry a road.</p><br>
<p>The Staple Bend Tunnel is preserved in a separate unit of the historic site, 5 mi east of Johnstown.</p><br>
<p>The Yungang Grottoes, formerly the Wuzhoushan Grottoes, are ancient Chinese Buddhist temple grottoes near the city of Datong in the province of Shanxi. They are excellent examples of rock-cut architecture and one of the three most famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China. The others are Longmen and Mogao.</p><br>
<p>The site is located about 16 km west of the city of Datong, in the valley of the Shi Li river at the base of the Wuzhou Shan mountains. They are an outstanding example of the Chinese stone carvings from the 5th and 6th centuries. There are 53 major caves, along with 51,000 niches housing the same number of Buddha statues. Additionally, there are around 1,100 minor caves. A Ming Dynasty-era fort is still located on top of the cliff housing the Yungang Grottoes.</p><br>
<p>The grottoes were excavated in the south face of a sandstone cliff about 2600 feet long and 30 to 60 feet high. In 2001, the Yungang Grottoes were made a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Yungang Grottoes are considered by UNESCO to be a "masterpiece of early Chinese Buddhist cave art......represent the successful fusion of Buddhist religious symbolic art from south and central Asia with Chinese cultural traditions, starting in the 5th century CE under Imperial auspices." It is classified as a AAAAA scenic area by the China National Tourism Administration.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After the decline of the Jin Dynasty, the northern parts of China came under the control of the Northern Wei. They made the city of Pingcheng, now known as Datong, their capital. Due to its promotion, Pingcheng saw an increase in construction work. The Northern Wei early adopted Buddhism as their state religion. Buddhism arrived in this location via travel on the ancient North Silk Road, the northernmost route of about 2600 kilometres in length, which connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi&#39;an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerging in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia.</p><br>
<p>The work on this first period of carving lasted until the year 465 AD, and the caves are now known as caves 16&ndash;20. Beginning around the year 471 AD, in a second construction phase that lasted until 494 AD, the twin caves 5/6, 7/8, and 9/10 as well as the caves 11, 12, and probably 13 were constructed under the supervision and support of the imperial court. The imperial patronage ended 494 AD with the move of the Wei court to the new capital of Luoyang. All other caves emerged under private patronage in a third construction period, lasting until 525, when the construction came to a final halt due to uprisings in the area.</p><br>
<h3>Deterioration and Conservation</h3><br>
<p>Since the end of the works, the sandstone of the grottoes has been exposed to heavy weathering. Many of the grottoes are exposed to the open air, and are therefore vulnerable to various forms of pollution and deterioration. Windblown dust and air pollution from the industrial city of Datong, as well as dust from mines and highways near the site pose a threat to the preservation of the ancient statues. The site is also in proximity of the Gobi Desert, the storms of which can contribute to the decay of the statues. The ensuing centuries therefore saw several attempts to preserve the caves and to repair sustained damage. During the Liao Dynasty the caves saw some renewing of statues and the buildup of the "10 temples of Yungang" from 1049 to 1060, that were meant to protect the main caves. However, they were destroyed again just some 60 years later in a fire. The wooden buildings extant in front of caves 5 and 6 were constructed in 1621, during the early Qing Dynasty. Since the 1950s, cracks in the sandstone have been sealed by grouting, and forestation has been implemented in an effort to reduce the weathering due to sandstorms. During April and May of 1991, Caltech personnel conducted air pollutant measurement experiments in the Yungang Grottoes. It was found that nearly all of the airborne matter was mineral dust or carbon particles, allowing a focus of attention on sources of these kinds of matter.</p><br>
<h2>Cave 6</h2><br>
<p>Cave 6 is one of the richest of the Yungang sites. It was constructed between 465 and 494 C.E. by Emperor Xiao Wen. The cave’s surface area is approximately 1,000 square meters. The entire interior of the cave is carved and painted. There is a stupa pillar in the center of the room extending from the floor to the ceiling. The walls are divided into two stories. The walls of the upper stories are host to carvings of standing Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and monks among other celestial figures. All of the carvings were painted, but because the caves have been repainted evidently up to twelve times, determining the original scheme is difficult.</p><br>
<p>Rachel&#39;s Tomb  is the site revered as the burial place of the Hebrew matriarch Rachel. The tomb, located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem, is considered holy to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Since the mid-1990s the site has been referred to by Palestinians as the Bilal bin Rabah mosque . The burial place of the matriarch Rachel as mentioned in the Jewish Tanakh and Christian Old Testament, and in Muslim literature is contested between this site and several others to the north. Although this site is considered unlikely to be the actual site of the grave, it is by far the most recognized candidate.</p><br>
<p>The earliest extra-biblical records describing this tomb as Rachel&#39;s burial place date to the first decades of the 4th century CE. The structure in its current form dates from the Ottoman period, and is situated in an Ottoman-period Muslim cemetery. he also added an antechamber, including a mihrab for Muslim prayer, to ease Muslim fears. According to the 1947 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine, the tomb was to be part of the internationally administered zone of Jerusalem, but the area was occupied by The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, which prohibited Jews from entering the area. Following the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1967, though not initially falling within Area C, the site has come under the control of the Israeli Ministry of Religious Affairs.</p><br>
<p>Rachels tomb is the third holiest site in Judaism and has become one of the cornerstones of Jewish-Israeli identity. According to, a mazzebah was erected at the site of Rachels grave in ancient Israel, leading scholars to consider the site to have been a place of worship in ancient Israel. According to Martin Gilbert, Jews have made pilgrimage to the tomb since ancient times. The first historically recorded pilgrimages to the site were by early Christians, and Christian witnesses wrote of the devotion shown to the shrine by local Muslims and then later also by Jews. Throughout history, the site was rarely considered a shrine exclusive to one religion and is described as being "held in esteem equally by Jews, Muslims, and Christians".</p><br>
<p>Following a 1929 British memorandum A 2005 report from OHCHR Special Rapporteur John Dugard noted that: "Although Rachel’s Tomb is a site holy to Jews, Muslims and Christians, it has effectively been closed to Muslims and Christians." On October 21, 2015, UNESCO adopted a controversial resolution reaffirming a 2010 statement that Rachel&#39;s Tomb was: "an integral part of Palestine." On 22 October 2015, the tomb was separated from the rest of Bethlehem with a series of concrete barriers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Biblical accounts and disputed location</h3><br>
<p>Biblical scholarship identifies two different traditions in the Hebrew Bible concerning the site of Rachel&#39;s burial, respectively a northern version, locating it north of Jerusalem near Ramah, modern Al-Ram, and a southern narrative locating it close to Bethlehem. In rabbinical tradition the duality is resolved by using two different terms in Hebrew to designate these different localities. In the Hebrew version given in Genesis, Rachel and Jacob journey from Shechem to Hebron, a short distance from Ephrath, which is glossed as Bethlehem (35:16-21, 48:7). She dies on the way giving birth to Benjamin:</p><br>
<p>"And Rachel died, and was buried on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem. And Jacob set a pillar upon her grave: that is the pillar of Rachel&#39;s grave unto this day." — Genesis 35:19-20</p><br>
<p>Tom Selwyn notes that R. A. S. Macalister, the most authoritative voice on the topography of Rachels tomb, advanced the view in 1912 that the identification with Bethlehem was based on a copyists mistake.</p><br>
<p>The Judean scribal gloss "(Ephrath, ) which is Bethlehem" was added to distinguish it from a similar toponym Ephrathah in the Bethlehem region. Some consider as certain, however, that Rachels tomb lay to the north, in Benjamite, not in Judean territory, and that the Bethlehem gloss represents a Judean appropriation of the grave, originally in the north, to enhance Judahs prestige. At 1 Samuel 10:2, Rachels tomb is located in the territory of Benjamin at Zelzah. In the period of the monarchy down to the exile, it would follow, Rachels tomb was thought to lie in Ramah. The indications for this are based on 1 Sam 10:2 and Jer. 31:15, which give an alternative location north of Jerusalem, in the vicinity of ar-Ram, biblical Ramah, five miles south of Bethel. One conjecture is that before Davids conquest of Jerusalem, the ridge road from Bethel might have been called "the Ephrath road" (derek ’eprātāh. Gen:35:19;derek’eprāt, Gen: 48:7), hence the passage in Genesis meant the road to Ephrath or Bethlehem, on which Ramah, if that word refers to a toponym, lay. A possible location in the Ramah could be the five stone monuments north of Hizma. Known as Qubur Beni Israin, the largest so-called tomb of the group, the function of which is obscure, has the name Qabr Umm beni Isra&#39;in, that is, "tomb of the mother of the descendants of Israel".</p><br>
<h3>Medieval period</h3><br>
<p>Traditions regarding the tomb at this location date back to the beginning of the 4th century AD. Eusebius and the Bordeaux Pilgrim mention the tomb as being located 4 miles from Jerusalem. In the late 7th century, the tomb was marked with a stone pyramid, devoid of any ornamentation. During the 10th century, Muqaddasi and other geographers fail to mention the tomb which indicates that it may have lost importance until the Crusaders revived its veneration. Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154) writes, "Half-way down the road is the tomb of Rachel (Rahil), the mother of Joseph and of Benjamin, the two sons of Jacob peace upon them all! The tomb is covered by twelve stones, and above it is a dome vaulted."</p><br>
<p>Benjamin of Tudela (1169–71) was the first Jewish pilgrim to describe his visit to the tomb. He mentioned a pillar made of 11 stones and a cupola resting on four columns "and all the Jews that pass by carve their names upon the stones of the pillar." Petachiah of Regensburg explains that the 11 stones represented the tribes of Israel, excluding Benjamin, since Rachel had died during his birth. All were marble, with that of Jacob on top." In the 14th century, Antony of Cremona referred to the cenotaph as "the most wonderful tomb that I shall ever see. I do not think that with 20 pairs of oxen it would be possible to extract or move one of its stones." It was described by Franciscan pilgrim Nicolas of Poggibonsi (1346–50) as being 7 feet high and enclosed by a rounded tomb with three gates.</p><br>
<p>From around the 15th century onwards, if not earlier, the tomb was occupied and maintained by the Muslim rulers. Pietro Casola (1494) described it as being "beautiful and much honoured by the</p><br>
<p>Moors." Mujir al-Din al-Ulaymi (1495), the Jerusalemite qadi and Arab historian, writes under the heading of Qoubbeh Râhîl ("Dome of Rachel") that Rachels tomb lies under this dome on the road between Bethlehem and Bayt Jala and that the edifice is turned towards the Sakhrah (the rock inside the Dome of the Rock) and widely visited by pilgrims. Rabbi Moses Surait of Prague (1650) described a high dome on the top of the tomb, an opening on one side, and a big courtyard surrounded by bricks. He also described a local Jewish cult associated with the site. A 1659 Venetian publication of Uri ben Simeon&#39;s Jichus Ha-Abot included a small and apparently inaccurate illustration.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman period</h3><br>
<p>THIS IS THE HOUSE</p><br>
<p>WHICH WAS BUILT BY THE GREAT PRINCE OF ISRAEL</p><br>
<p>SIR MOSES MONTEFIORE</p><br>
<p>MAY HIS LIGHT SHINE FORTH</p><br>
<p>AND HIS WIFE, THE DAUGHTER OF KINGS</p><br>
<p>LADY JUDITH</p><br>
<p>MAY WE MERIT TO SEE THE RIGHTEOUS MESSIAH</p><br>
<p>GOD WILLING, AMEN</p><br>
<p>In 1615 Muhammad Pasha of Jerusalem repaired the structure and transferred exclusive ownership of the site to the Jews. In 1626, Franciscus Quaresmius visited the site and found that the tomb had been rebuilt by the locals several times. He also found near it a cistern and many Muslim graves. In March 1756, the Istanbul Jewish Committee for the Jews of Palestine instructed that 500 kurus used by the Jews of Jerusalem to fix a wall at the tomb were to be repaid and used instead for more deserving causes. In 1788, walls were built to enclose the arches. According to Richard Pococke, this was done to "hinder the Jews from going into it". Pococke also reports that the site was highly regarded by Turks as a place of burial. An 1824 report described "a stone building, evidently of Turkish construction, which terminates at the top in a dome. Within this edifice is the tomb. It is a pile of stones covered with white plaster, about 10 feet long and nearly as high. The inner wall of the building and the sides of the tomb are covered with Hebrew names, inscribed by Jews."</p><br>
<p>When the structure was undergoing repairs in around 1825, excavations at the foot of the monument revealed that it was not built directly over an underground cavity. However, a small distance from the site, an unusually deep cavern was discovered.</p><br>
<p>In 1830, the Ottomans legally recognized the tomb as a Jewish holy site. Proto-Zionist banker Sir Moses Montefiore visited Rachels Tomb together with his wife on their first visit to the Holy Land in 1828. The couple were childless, and Lady Montefiore was deeply moved by the tomb, which was in good condition at that time. Before the couples next visit, in 1839, the Galilee earthquake of 1837 had heavily damaged the tomb. In 1838 the tomb was described as "merely an ordinary Muslim Wely, or tomb of a holy person; a small square building of stone with a dome, and within it a tomb in the ordinary Muhammedan form; the whole plastered over with mortar. It is neglected and falling to decay; though pilgrimages are still made to it by the Jews. The naked walls are covered with names in several languages; many of them Hebrew."</p><br>
<p>In 1841, Montefiore purchased the site and obtained for the Jews the key of the tomb. He renovated the entire structure, reconstructing and re-plastering its white dome. He extended the building by constructing an adjacent vaulted ante-chamber on the east for Muslim prayer use and burial preparation, possibly as an act of conciliation. The room included a mihrab facing Mecca. In 1844, William Henry Bartlett referred to the tomb as a "Turkish Mosque", following a visit to the area in 1842. In the mid-1850s, the marauding Arab e-Ta&#39;amreh tribe forced the Jews to furnish them with an annual £30 payment to prevent them from damaging the tomb.</p><br>
<p>According to Elizabeth Anne Finn, wife of the British consul, James Finn the only time the Sephardi Jewish community left the Old City of Jerusalem was for monthly prayers at "Rachel&#39;s Sepulchre" or Hebron.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, the Jews of Bombay donated money to dig a well. Although Rachel&#39;s Tomb was only an hour and a half walk from the Old City, many pilgrims found themselves very thirsty and unable to obtain fresh water. Every Rosh Chodesh, the Maiden of Ludmir would lead her followers to Rachel’s tomb and lead a prayer service with various rituals, which included spreading out requests of the past four weeks over the tomb. On the traditional anniversary of Rachel’s death, she would lead a solemn procession to the tomb where she chanted psalms in a night-long vigil.</p><br>
<p>In 1868 a publication by the Catholic missionary society the Paulist Fathers noted that " memory has always been held in respect by the Jews and Christians, and even now the former go there every Thursday, to pray and read the old, old history of this mother of their race. When leaving Bethlehem for the fourth and last time, after we had passed the tomb of Rachel, on our way to Jerusalem, Father Luigi and I met a hundred or more Jews on their weekly visit to the venerated spot."</p><br>
<p>The Hebrew monthly ha-Levanon of August 19, 1869, rumored that a group of Christians had purchased land around the tomb and were in the process of demolishing Montefiore&#39;s vestibule in order to erect a church there. During the following years, land in the vicinity of the tomb was acquired by Nathan Strauss. In October 1875, Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kalischer purchased three dunams of land near the tomb intending to establish a Jewish farming colony there. Custody of the land was transferred to the Perushim community in Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>In 1912 the Ottoman Government permitted the Jews to repair the shrine itself, but not the antechamber. In 1915 the structure had four walls, each about 7 m (23 ft.) long and 6 m (20 ft.) high. The dome, rising about 3 m (10 ft.), "is used by the Moslems for prayer; its holy character has hindered them from removing the Hebrew letters from its walls."</p><br>
<h3>British Mandate period</h3><br>
<p>Three months after the British occupation of Palestine the whole place was cleaned and whitewashed by the Jews without protest from the Muslims. However, in 1921 when the Chief Rabbinate applied to the Municipality of Bethlehem for permission to perform repairs at the site, local Muslims objected. In view of this, the High Commissioner ruled that, pending appointment of the Holy Places Commission provided for under the Mandate, all repairs should be undertaken by the Government. However, so much indignation was caused in Jewish circles by this decision that the matter was dropped, the repairs not being considered urgent.</p><br>
<p>During this period, both Jews and Muslims visited the site. From the 1940s, it came to be viewed as a symbol of the Jewish peoples return to Zion, to its ancient homeland,Susan Sered, "A Tale of Three Rachels: The Natural Herstory of a Cultural Symbol," in, Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies, 1998. "In the 1940s, by contrast, Rachel&#39;s Tomb became explicitly identified with the</p><br>
<p>return to Zion, Jewish statehood and Allied victory." For Jewish women, the tomb was associated with fertility and became a place of pilgrimage to pray for successful childbirth. Depictions of the Tomb of Rachel have appeared in Jewish religious books and works of art. Muslims prayed inside the mosque there and the cemetery at the tomb was the main Muslim cemetery in the Bethlehem area. The building was also used for Islamic funeral rituals. It is reported that Jews and Muslims respected each other and accommodated each other&#39;s rituals.</p><br>
<p>During the riots of 1929, violence hampered regular visits by Jews to the tomb. Both Jews and Muslims demanded control of the site, with the Muslims claiming it was an integral part of the Muslim cemetery within which it is situated. It also demanded a renewal of the old Muslim custom of purifying corpses in the tomb&#39;s antechamber.</p><br>
<h3>Jordanian period</h3><br>
<p>Following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War till 1967, the site was occupied by Jordan and occupied by the Islamic waqf. On December 11, 1948, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 194 which called for free access to all the holy places in Israel and the remainder of the territory of the former Palestine Mandate of Great Britain. In April 1949, the Jerusalem Committee prepared a document for the UN Secretariat in order to establish the status of the different holy places in the area of the former British Mandate for Palestine. It noted that ownership of Rachel&#39;s Tomb was claimed by both Jews and Muslims. The Jews claimed possession by virtue of a 1615 firman granted by the Pasha of Jerusalem which gave them exclusive use of the site and that the building, which had fallen into decay, was entirely restored by Moses Montefiore in 1845; the keys were obtained by the Jews from the last Muslim guardian at this time. The Muslims claimed the site was a place of Muslim prayer and an integral part of the Muslim cemetery within which it was situated. They stated that the Ottoman Government had recognised it as such and that it is included among the Tombs of the Prophets for which identity signboards were issued by the Ministry of Waqfs in 1898. They also asserted that the antechamber built by Montefiore was specially built as a place of prayer for Muslims. The UN ruled that the status quo, an arrangement approved by the Ottoman Decree of 1757 concerning rights, privileges and practices in certain Holy Places, apply to the site.</p><br>
<p>In theory, free access was to be granted as stipulated in the 1949 Armistice Agreements, though Israelis, unable to enter Jordan, were prevented from visiting. Non-Israeli Jews, however, continued to visit the site. During this period the Muslim cemetery was expanded.</p><br>
<h3>Israeli control</h3><br>
<p>Following the Six Day War in 1967, Israel gained control of the West Bank, which included the tomb. The tomb was placed under Israeli military administration. Some time after the capture, Islamic crescents, inscribed into the rooms of the structure, were erased. Muslims claim that they were prevented from using the mosque, although they were allowed to use the cemetery for a while.</p><br>
<p>Prime minister Levi Eshkol instructed that the tomb be included within the new expanded municipal borders of Jerusalem, but citing security concerns, Moshe Dayan decided not to include it within the territory that was annexed to Jerusalem. Starting in 1993, Muslims were barred from using the cemetery. According to Bethlehem University, "ccess to Rachel’s Tomb is now restricted to tourists entering from Israel."</p><br>
<h4>Oslo Accords and aftermath (1995–2010)</h4><br>
<p>Following the Oslo accords, the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement was signed on September 28, 1995, placing Rachels Tomb in Area C under Israeli jurisdiction. Originally, Yitzhak Rabin had decided to cede Rachels Tomb, along with Bethlehem.</p><br>
<p>On December 1, 1995, Bethlehem, with the exception of the tomb enclave, passed under the full control of the Palestinian Authority. Jews could reach it in bulletproof vehicles under military supervision. In 1996 Israel began an 18-month fortification of the site at a cost of $2m. It included a 13 foot high wall and adjacent military post. In response, Palestinians said that "the Tomb of Rachel was on Islamic land" and that the structure was in fact a mosque built at the time of the Arab conquest in honour of Bilal ibn Rabah, an Ethiopian known in Islamic history as the first muezzin.</p><br>
<p>After an attack on Josephs Tomb and its subsequent takeover by Arabs, hundreds of residents of Bethlehem and the Aida refugee camp, led by the Palestinian Authority-appointed governor of Bethlehem, Muhammad Rashad al-Jabari, attacked Rachels Tomb. They set the scaffolding that had been erected around it on fire and tried to break in. The IDF dispersed the mob with gunfire and stun grenades, and dozens were wounded. In the following years, the Israeli-controlled site became a flashpoint between young Palestinians who hurled stones, bottles and firebombs and IDF troops, who responded with tear gas and rubber bullets.Unrest during the late 1990s:</p><br>
<p>, Jerusalem Post, (March 21, 1997).</p><br>
<p>, Jerusalem Post, (August 24, 1997).</p><br>
<p>, New York Times, (September 13, 1998).</p><br>
<p>At the end of 2000, when the second intifada broke out, the tomb came under attack for 41 days. Fatah operatives and members of the Palestinian security services who were responsible for curbing militant activity against Israelis actively participated in it. In May 2001, fifty Jews found themselves trapped inside by a firefight between the IDF and Palestinian Authority gunmen. In March 2002 the IDF returned to Bethlehem as part of Operation Defensive Shield and remained there for an extended period of time. In September 2002, the tomb was incorporated on the Israeli side of the West Bank barrier and surrounded by a concrete wall and watchtowers.</p><br>
<p>In February 2005, the Israel Supreme Court rejected a Palestinian appeal to change the route of the security fence in the region of the tomb. Israeli construction destroyed the Palestinian neighbourhood of Qubbet Rahil. Israel also declared the area to be a part of Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>In February 2010, Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu announced that the tomb would become a part of the national Jewish heritage sites rehabilitation plan. The decision was opposed by the Palestinian Authority, who saw it as a political decision associated with Israels settlement project. The UNs special coordinator for the Middle East, Robert Serry, issued a statement of concern over the move, saying that the site is in Palestinian territory and has significance in both Judaism and Islam. The Jordanian government said that the move would derail peace efforts in the Middle East and condemned "unilateral Israeli measures which affect holy places and offend sentiments of Muslims throughout the world". The Israeli Prime Minister&#39;s Office criticised the resolution, claiming that: "the attempt to detach the Nation of Israel from its heritage is absurd... If the nearly 4,000-year-old burial sites of the Patriarchs and Matriarchs of the Jewish Nation – Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel and Leah – are not part of its culture and tradition, then what is a national cultural site?”</p><br>
<h2>Jewish religious significance</h2><br>
<h3>Rabbinic traditions</h3><br>
<p>In Jewish lore, Rachel was born on 11 Cheshvan 1553 BCE.</p><br>
<p>According to the Midrash, the first person to pray at Rachels tomb was her eldest son, Joseph. While he was being carried away to Egypt after his brothers had sold him into slavery, he broke away from his captors and ran to his mothers grave. He threw himself upon the ground, wept aloud and cried "Mother! mother! Wake up. Arise and see my suffering." He heard his mother respond: "Do not fear. Go with them, and God will be with you."</p><br>
<p>A number of reasons are given why Rachel was buried by the road side and not in the Cave of Machpela with the other Patriarchs and Matriarchs:</p><br>
<p>Jacob foresaw that following the destruction of the First Temple the Jews would be exiled to Babylon. They would cry out as they passed her grave, and be comforted by her. She would intercede on their behalf, asking for mercy from God who would hear her prayer.</p><br>
<p>Although Rachel was buried within the boundaries of the Holy Land, she was not buried in the Cave of Machpelah due to her sudden and unexpected death. Jacob, looking after his children and herds of cattle, simply did not have the opportunity to embalm her body to allow for the slow journey to Hebron.</p><br>
<p>Jacob was intent on not burying Rachel at Hebron, as he wished to prevent himself feeling ashamed before his forefathers, lest it appear he still regarded both sisters as his wives - a biblically forbidden union.</p><br>
<p>According to the mystical work, Zohar, when the Messiah appears, he will lead the dispersed Jews back to the Land of Israel, along the road which passes Rachel&#39;s grave.</p><br>
<h3>Location</h3><br>
<p>Early Jewish scholars noticed an apparent contradiction in the Bible with regards to the location of Rachels grave. In Genesis, the Bible states that Rachel was buried "on the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem." Yet a reference to her tomb in Samuel states: "When you go from me today, you will find two men by Rachels tomb, in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah" (1 Sam 10:2). Rashi asks: "Now, isnt Rachels tomb in the border of Judah, in Bethlehem?" He explains that the verse rather means: "Now they are by Rachels tomb, and when you will meet them, you will find them in the border of Benjamin, in Zelzah." Similarly, Ramban assumes that the site shown today near Bethlehem reflects an authentic tradition. After he had arrived in Jerusalem and seen "with his own eyes" that Rachels tomb was on the outskirts of Bethlehem, he retracted his original understanding of her tomb being located north of Jerusalem and concluded that the reference in Jeremiah (Jer 31:15) which seemed to place her burial place in Ramah, is to be understood allegorically. There remains however, a dispute as to whether her tomb near Bethlehem was in the tribal territory of Judah, or of her son Benjamin.</p><br>
<h3>Customs</h3><br>
<p>A Jewish tradition teaches that Rachel weeps for her children and that when the Jews were taken into exile, she wept as they passed by her grave on the way to Babylonia. Jews have made pilgrimage to the tomb since ancient times.</p><br>
<p>There is a tradition regarding the key that unlocked the door to the tomb. The key was about 15 cm long and made of brass. The beadle kept it with him at all times, and it was not uncommon that someone would knock at his door in the middle of the night requesting it to ease the labor pains of an expectant mother. The key was placed under her pillow and almost immediately, the pains would subside and the delivery would take place peacefully.</p><br>
<p>Till this day there is an ancient tradition regarding a segulah or charm which is the most famous women&#39;s ritual at the tomb. A red string is tied around the tomb seven times then worn as a charm for fertility.</p><br>
<p>The Torah Ark in Rachel&#39;s Tomb is covered with a curtain (Hebrew: parokhet) made from the wedding gown of Nava Applebaum, a young Israeli woman who was killed by a Palestinian terrorist in a suicide bombing at Café Hillel in Jerusalem in 2003, on the eve of her wedding.</p><br>
<h2>Replicas</h2><br>
<p>The tomb of Sir Moses Montefiore, adjacent to the Montefiore synagogue in Ramsgate, England, is a replica of Rachel&#39;s Tomb.</p><br>
<p>In 1934, the Michigan Memorial Park planned to reproduce the tomb. When built, it was used to house the sound system and pipe organ used during funerals, but it has since been demolished.</p><br>
<p>The Brienzer Rothorn is a mountain of the Emmental Alps, in Switzerland. With an elevation of 2,350 metres above sea level, the Brienzer Rothorn is the highest summit of the range. To its west lies the Tannhorn, whilst to its east are Arnihaaggen, Höch Gumme and the Brünig Pass . On its south side it overlooks Lake Brienz, whilst to the north it looks out over the Waldemme valley.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, the summit is shared by the municipalities of Brienz, to the south-west, Schwanden bei Brienz, to the south-east, Giswil to the north-east, and Flühli, to the north-west. Brienz and Schwanden bei Brienz are in the canton of Bern, Giswil is in the canton of Obwalden, and Flühli is in the canton of Lucerne. The Brienzer Rothorn is the highest point in the canton of Lucerne.</p><br>
<p>The summit can be reached from Brienz by the Brienz Rothorn Bahn (steam train), the summit station being located at 2,244 metres on the Bernese side. It can also be reached from Sörenberg, in Flühli, by a cable car.</p><br>
<p>The Mönch  at 4,107 m is a mountain in the Bernese Alps, in Switzerland. Together with the Eiger and the Jungfrau, it forms a highly recognisable group of mountains, visible from far away.</p><br>
<p>The Mönch lies on the border between the cantons of Valais and Bern, and forms part of a mountain ridge between the Jungfrau and Jungfraujoch to the west, and the Eiger to the east. It is west of Mönchsjoch, a pass at 3,650 m, Mönchsjoch Hut, and north of the Jungfraufirn and Ewigschneefäld, two affluents of the Great Aletsch Glacier. The north side of the Mönch forms a step wall above the Lauterbrunnen valley.</p><br>
<p>The Jungfrau railway tunnel runs right under the summit, at an elevation of approximately 3,300 m.</p><br>
<p>The peak was first climbed in 1857 on August 15, ascended by Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann, Ulrich Kaufmann and Sigismund Porges.</p><br>
<p>The Moench, by Helga von Cramm, with prayer by Achespè, chromolithograph, c. 1879. (3 x 4.5 inches).jpgThe Moench, by Helga von Cramm, with prayer by Achespè, chromolithograph, c. 1879. (3 x 4.5 inches).</p><br>
<p>Mount Niblock is a mountain in Banff National Park near Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was named in 1904 after John Niblock, a superintendent with the Canadian Pacific Railway. Niblock was an early promoter of tourism in the Rockies and influenced the naming of some of the CPR stops in Western Canada.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Niblock is a popular scramble in the Lake Louise area and is sometimes combined in the same day with Mount Whyte (2,983 m), although the latter is a more difficult scramble. The best time for climbing Mt. Niblock is July through September when the normal route is usually free of snow. Attempting it in the spring or early summer may include significant avalanche hazard.</p><br>
<p>To access Mt. Niblock, follow the trail as it begins near Chateau Lake Louise, passes Mirror Lake and then Lake Agnes. Follow the right hand shore line trail to the far end of the lake until it begins its left turn towards the Big Beehive. Here an obvious path can be found leading to the lower scree slopes and short cliffs. A more detailed route description can be found in Scrambles in the Canadian Rockies.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby</h2><br>
<p>Fairview Mountain</p><br>
<p>Mount St. Piran</p><br>
<p>Fairview Mountain  is a mountain in Banff National Park near Lake Louise, Alberta. The mountain was named in 1894 by Walter Wilcox, which reflects the view from the top. An alternate name for the peak is Goat Mountain although it is rarely referred to as such.</p><br>
<p>Fairview Mountain is a popular easy scramble in the Lake Louise area and can be combined with nearby Saddle Pass/Peak trail. For the modest effort expended it offers some of the best views of the area. While the mountain shows formidable cliff bands from the lake, a hiking trail ascends to a saddle where a footpath leads experienced hikers to the top. A plaque is embedded near the rock bands above the lake warning not to attempt a descent on this side &mdash; while the way is initially easy, rock bands quickly change it to a technical descent. Numerous rescues have been made to retrieve stranded hikers who disregarded the warning.</p><br>
<p>While the first recorded ascent took place in 1893, it is probable that the mountain was ascended earlier than that by an aboriginal explorer.</p><br>
<p>Saint Mary&#39;s Catholic Church is a former parish of the Archdiocese of Dubuque. The church is located in Dubuque, Iowa, United States, at the corner of 15th and White Streets. The church is recognizable by its steeple– one of the tallest in the area. The church property was added to the National Register of Historic Places as an historic district in 2015, and the various buildings were included as contributing properties in the Washington Residential Historic District later in the same year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The beginning</h3><br>
<p>During the 1840s, a number of German families moved to the city of Dubuque. Many of these families were Catholic. Initially, they attended Mass at St. Raphael&#39;s Cathedral. However, the cathedral was becoming quite crowded due to the growing German and Irish populations of the city. Also, Bishop Mathias Loras was having difficulty ensuring that the German families were adequately cared for.</p><br>
<p>In 1849, Bishop Loras granted permission for 40 German families to form a new parish. Gerhard Hueckels donated land at the corner of 8th and White Streets in Dubuque. In 1850, a church was built on the land. This church, named Holy Trinity, was built of native stone with a tower about twenty feet tall.</p><br>
<p>For the first few years, there was a lack of priests in the still-young diocese. The people of Holy Trinity parish were served at first by a missionary, Father Gerhard Plathe. Finally, in 1853, they were given a resident priest, Father William Edmonds.</p><br>
<p>Soon the first major influx of German immigrants occurred. The small Holy Trinity church was filled to capacity. In 1863, the pastor, Father George Fendrick, and members of the parish founded the "German Roman Catholic Association of Dubuque." Their goal was to build a new church to support the parish - which now had over 300 families. At first, they attempted to purchase the Presbyterian Seminary in Dubuque for $15,000. After other Christian denominations opposed this plan, the group instead purchased an orchard for $3,000. This site, about seven blocks north of the Holy Trinity Church, is the site of the current church.</p><br>
<h3>Construction of the new St. Mary's Church</h3><br>
<p>In 1864, construction was begun on the new church. The plans were designed by the architect John Mullany, who had designed the present Cathedral building. Father Aloysius Meis directed the construction. The new building was done in Gothic Architecture style.</p><br>
<p>As with many other churches during the 19th century, most of the excavation and construction work was done by the men of the parish. By the time the foundation was complete in September 1864, only $3.03 was left in the treasury. The remaining $80,000 needed to finish the church was brought in through more fundraising and additional donations.</p><br>
<h3>From 1867 to 1922</h3><br>
<p>On February 10, 1867, Bishop John Hennessy dedicated the new St. Marys Church. Over the next 55 years, the population of Dubuque continued to grow. This was especially true in the 1880s with the arrival of the Milwaukee Railroad shops. St. Marys was the mother parish of four other area parishes. Sacred Heart was established in 1879, followed by Holy Ghost in 1896. In 1910, a new Holy Trinity Church was built near Eagle Point Park in Dubuque in memory of the first church in Dubuque to carry that name. Finally in 1922, Nativity parish was built near what today is called Loras College.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1870s, the Hook and Hastings Company - a prominent 19th century organ builder - installed an organ in the choir loft. This organ was placed in a visually impressive case. The organ was significantly altered by the Lima Pipe Organ Company of Elida, Ohio, in 1965; the case and most of the pipes were retained, augmented by all new mechanism (including windchests constructed of aluminum) and several additional ranks of pipes. It currently has three manuals and 33 stops.</p><br>
<p>The sanctuary was extended in 1911, followed by the construction of two small chapels at the rear of the church. In 1914, stained glass windows built in Bavaria were installed in the church, though the shipment of the windows was nearly stopped because of the outbreak of World War I. Twelve large stained glass windows honor the Blessed Virgin Mary, and a large mural of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary was painted behind the altar, because the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary is the patron saint of the parish.</p><br>
<h3>From 1922 to the present</h3><br>
<p>In 1935, Father Aloysius Schmitt was ordained in Rome, Italy. He returned to the United States, and his first assignment was as an associate at Saint Mary&#39;s Church. In 1941, he was killed in the attack at Pearl Harbor, becoming the first chaplain of any faith to die in the Second World War.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, the reforms of the Second Vatican Council were implemented. The parish removed the communion rail and placed a new altar in the sanctuary that faced the congregation. However, the original high and side altars were left largely intact.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, St. Marys Church had combined efforts with the nearby St. Patricks Church. The two parishes shared administrative staff and school facilities. The parish has been affected by the Priest shortage and a decline in membership as some families moved to suburban locations. The parish had a priest to lead Mass, but most of the administrative work was handled by a lay woman minister, the wife of a former USA Representative who is a deacon.</p><br>
<p>In the 1990s, St. Mary&#39;s built a new handicapped entrance. This entrance is located at the northeast corner of the church and has an elevator. Before that, the church was not as accessible as other churches in the area.</p><br>
<p>With a heavy debt load and a declining membership, the parish council recommended to the Archdiocese that the parish be closed. In late 2009 it was announced that the parish would be closed. On May 25, 2010, St. Mary&#39;s held its final mass as a Catholic parish with 700 attendees. The building is still considered a church, but the parish is no longer active.</p><br>
<p>The movie F.I.S.T., which was largely filmed in Dubuque, had a scene which featured exterior shots of St. Mary&#39;s Church.</p><br>
<p>A book entitled "St. Marys: Finest church west of the Mississippi" covering the complete history of the church was published in August 2010. In 2014 a conceptual plan (but no timeline or cost estimate) to renovate the campus to provide office space for small businesses, a community kitchen and 12 units of low income housing was jointly announced by the Dubuque Archdiocese, non-Catholic community groups such as Dubuque&#39;s Economic Development Department and the Washington Neighborhood Corporation, and Dubuque-based Gronen Restoration.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mackinac  is a former British and American military outpost garrisoned from the late 18th century to the late 19th century in the city of Mackinac Island, Michigan, on Mackinac Island. The British built the fort during the American Revolutionary War to control the strategic Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, and by extension the fur trade on the Great Lakes. The British did not relinquish the fort until fifteen years after American independence.</p><br>
<p>Fort Mackinac later became the scene of two strategic battles for control of the Great Lakes during the War of 1812. During most of the 19th century, it served as an outpost of the United States Army. Closed in 1895, the fort has been adapted as a museum on the grounds of Mackinac Island State Park.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>American Revolutionary War</h3><br>
<p>Before 1763, the French used Fort Michilimackinac on the mainland south shore of the Straits of Mackinac to control the area. After the Treaty of Paris (1763), the British occupied the French fort but considered the wooden structure too difficult to defend. In 1780/1781, its lieutenant governor Patrick Sinclair constructed a new limestone fort on the 150-foot limestone bluffs of Mackinac Island above the Straits of Mackinac. The British held the outpost throughout the American Revolutionary War. Captain Daniel Robertson commanded the garrison on Mackinac Island from 1782 to his death in 1787. Despite the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1783), the British did not officially relinquish the fort to the United States until 1796.</p><br>
<h3>War of 1812</h3><br>
<p>In June 1812, at the start of the War of 1812, British General Isaac Brock sent a canoe party 1,200 miles (1,900 km) to confirm that a state of war existed. This party returned with an order to attack Fort Mackinac, then known as Fort Michilimackinac.</p><br>
<p>A minimal United States garrison of approximately sixty men under the command of Lieutenant Porter Hanks then manned Fort Mackinac. Although a diligent officer, Hanks had received no communication from his superiors for months. On the morning of 17 July 1812, a combined British and Native American force of seventy war canoes and ten bateaux under the command of British Captain Charles Roberts attacked Fort Mackinac. British Captain Roberts came from Fort St. Joseph (Ontario) and landed on the north end of Mackinac Island, 2 miles (3 km) from the fort. The British removed the village inhabitants from their homes and trained two cannons at the fort. The Americans, under Lieutenant Hanks, were taken by surprise and Hanks perceived his garrison was badly outnumbered. The officers and men under Roberts numbered about two hundred; a few hundred Native Americans of various tribes supported him.</p><br>
<p>Fearing that the Native Americans on the British side would massacre his men and allies, American Lieutenant Hanks accepted the British offer of surrender without a fight. The British paroled the American forces, essentially allowing them to go free after swearing to not take up arms in the war again. They made the island inhabitants swear an oath of allegiance as subjects of the United Kingdom.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the British captured the fort, two American vessels arrived from Ft. Dearborn (Chicago), unaware of the start of the War of 1812, or the fort&#39;s capture by British forces. The British raised the American flag and when the vessels tied up at the pier, the British captured the two sloops as prizes of war. The ships were the Erie (Capt. Norton) and Friends Good Will (Capt. Lee), the latter being taken by the British into service as HMS Little Belt. The schooner Mary and the Salina, anchored at port, were sent by the British to Detroit as cartels carrying the prisoners they had taken.</p><br>
<p>After capturing the island, the British under the command of Colonel Robert McDouall of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment built Fort George, a stockade and blockhouse on the highest point of the island. Lieutenant Hanks made his way to Detroit and the American military post there. Upon his arrival, superiors charged him with cowardice in the surrender of Fort Mackinac. Before the court martial of Lieutenant Hanks could begin, British forces attacked Fort Detroit. A British cannonball ripped through the room where Hanks was standing, cutting him in half and killing the officer next to him as well.</p><br>
<p>United States Army Colonel George Croghan and his superior General William Henry Harrison designed a major campaign to take control of the Great Lakes and sever the fur trade alliance between the British and the tribes of the region; as part of this campaign, the Americans attempted to retake Mackinac Island in July 1814. The two-pronged campaign also included an assault on Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, located on the upper.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Mackinac Island (1814)</h3><br>
<p>On 26 July 1814, a squadron of five United States ships arrived off Mackinac Island, carrying a landing force of 700 soldiers under the command of Colonel Croghan. This landing began the Battle of Mackinac Island. To his dismay, Colonel Croghan discovered that the new British blockhouse stood too high for the naval guns to reach, forcing an unprotected assault on the wall of Fort George. The Americans shelled Fort George for two days with most shells falling harmlessly in vegetable gardens around the fort.</p><br>
<p>A dense fog forced the Americans back from Mackinac Island for a week. Major Andrew Holmes led the American forces in returning; they landed at the north end of the island near the location of the British assault in 1812. The Americans worked their way to the fort through dense woods, which Native American allies of the British protected, finally emerging into a clearing below Fort George.</p><br>
<p>British Colonel McDouall had placed a small force bearing muskets, rifles, and two field guns behind low breastworks at the opposite end of the clearing. When the Americans emerged from the woods into the clearing, the British guns targeted them easily. British soldiers killed 13 Americans, including Major Holmes and two other officers, and wounded 51 others. The heavy losses compelled US Colonel Croghan to order his men to retreat back through the woods to the beach. The Americans rowed back to their ships and retreated.</p><br>
<p>The American defeat in the Battle of Mackinac Island left the island and its forts in the hands of the British through the end of the War of 1812. Following the Treaty of Ghent, American forces reoccupied Fort Mackinac in July 1815. They renamed Fort George as Fort Holmes, in honor of Major Holmes, killed in the 1814 attack. After the War of 1812 and settlement of the northern border and tensions with Britain, Fort Mackinac gradually declined in military significance.</p><br>
<h3>Later years</h3><br>
<p>No longer needed as a front line border defense against the British in Canada, the fort was used as a strategic troop reserve. The Army essentially could deploy troops to Fort Mackinac until a need arose to transfer them to other locations of military importance. The Army nearly abandoned Fort Mackinac between such uses. It was also used as a fur trading post, as Mackinac Island was an important fur post. From 1816 to 1821 the post was commanded by Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, the older brother of President Franklin Pierce. He married the daughter of Magdelaine Laframboise, a prominent fur trader of Ojibwe and French descent.</p><br>
<p>On 6 June 1822, a fur trader named Alexis St. Martin waited to trade in his furs when a gun accidentally discharged just inches from him, blowing a hole in his abdomen. The post surgeon, Doctor William Beaumont, attended to him. Dr. Beaumont cared for the presumably doomed St. Martin the best he could. To his surprise, the man appeared to make a recovery. Beaumont took St. Martin into his home, caring for him for several years. St. Martin healed although his stomach had a hole. Beaumont seized the opportunity and began observing and conducting experiments on the man. Through these experiments, Beaumont described the process of digestion in detail, unlocking its mysteries. Beaumont wrote a book about his experiments and later became known as "The Father of Gastric Physiology."</p><br>
<p>The fort developed as an important staging area for US exploration of the northern Michigan Territory, including the expedition in 1832 under the command of Lewis Cass to explore the headwaters of the Mississippi River. Henry Rowe Schoolcraft held the post of United States Indian agent at Fort Mackinac for a time in the 1830s. He did extensive study of the Native American languages and culture of the region, aided by his marriage to Jane Johnston, the Ojibwe-British daughter of Johnston, a wealthy British fur trader at Sault Ste. Marie. Both her parents&#39; families were prominent among the elite of the region.</p><br>
<p>During the Mexican–American War and for long periods during the Civil War, the Army left the care and upkeep of Fort Mackinac to an ordnance sergeant. Despite these periods of relative inactivity, the fort played a small role in the Civil War, briefly used as a prison for three Confederate political prisoners. Brought to Mackinac Island and the fort during the summer months, these three men enjoyed relative freedom, guarded only by a volunteer militia. When faced with the prospect of enduring a long, harsh winter on the island, two of the prisoners signed loyalty oaths and obtained release. The third Confederate refused, and the Army ultimately transferred him to another post.</p><br>
<p>Seth Eastman, an officer and artist in the United States Army, in 1872 made an oil painting of Fort Mackinac, as a commission by the US Congress of paintings of military forts. It is now part of the collection of the United States Senate. His more important work was to illustrate Henry Rowe Schoolcraft&#39;s six-volume history of the American Indians, commissioned by Congress in the 1850s.</p><br>
<h3>Mackinac National Park</h3><br>
<p>From 1875 to 1895, Mackinac National Park, the second national park in the United States after Yellowstone National Park, included Fort Mackinac and much of Mackinac Island. During the national park years, the troops stationed at Mackinac acted as park rangers. The Army tasked these men with maintaining the park, so they spent much time cutting new roads and footpaths through the park.</p><br>
<p>To improve conditions and boost morale, the Army constructed a bathhouse at the fort (in which every man at the fort was required to bathe at least once a week), a post toilet (complete with flush toilets), and a post canteen (where the men could read current magazines, play pool, and buy beer and wine). They wanted Fort Mackinac to be a "desirable station." Soldiers also had regular military duties, drilling on the parade ground and taking target practice at least once a week on either a 600- or 1000-yard rifle range. The skills learned at the fort later proved important for many troops who were posted at other locations in the still-dangerous American West.</p><br>
<h2>Decommissioning</h2><br>
<h3>State administration</h3><br>
<p>In 1895, Congress closed Fort Mackinac and Mackinac National Park. It transferred the fort and park to the State of Michigan, which created Mackinac Island State Park, the first state park in Michigan. The semi-autonomous Mackinac Island State Park Commission in 1895 began governing Fort Mackinac and the other surrounding historic sites on or near Mackinac Island: Colonial Michilimackinac, Historic Mill Creek, the Old Mackinac Point Lighthouse, and Mackinac Island State Park. The Governor of Michigan appoints members of the Commission, who meet many times during the course of a year to govern Mackinac State Historic Parks. The commission and historic parks preserve, protect, and present the rich and natural history of Mackinac Island and the Straits area.</p><br>
<p>In the 1950s, Mackinac Island State Park Commission developed a new way of financing its park, based on the system that financed the Mackinac Bridge. Michigan financed construction of Mackinac Bridge through revenue bonds repaid from the cash flow of toll fees from the bridge after it opened in 1957. Mackinac Island State Park Commission modified this idea for park restoration purposes, with Fort Mackinac admission fees serving as the cash flow. More than three-fourths of budget of Mackinac Island State Park Commission now comes from admission fees and other self-generated cash flow. Most United States parks-and-recreation agencies instead depend upon public subsidies. Mackinac Island State Park Commission operates one of the largest parks in United States that generates a significant majority of its own operating budget.</p><br>
<h3>The Fort today</h3><br>
<p>The current museum at the park includes 14 historic buildings.</p><br>
<p>Today, Fort Mackinac is a popular heritage tourist destination. Situated on 150-foot bluffs above the Straits of Mackinac, it is one of the few surviving American Revolutionary War forts and one of the most complete early forts in the country. In 2015, Fort Mackinac celebrated 235 years standing guard over Mackinac Island.</p><br>
<p>During the main tourism summer months (June through August), visitors ascend into a bustle of activity within the old British-built stone walls of old Fort Mackinac after entering its weathered gates. Costumed interpreters greet visitors, portray life in the 1880s, answer questions, pose for pictures, and lead tours throughout the day. Some of the "soldiers" carry original 45-70 Springfield Model 1873, the type used at the fort during the 1880s. Others play music or greet and mingle with the crowds of visitors.</p><br>
<p>The 1841 model six-pounder, positioned just as it would have been if used during the attack of Fort Mackinac in the War of 1812, is fired many times daily. It is the second-largest cannon regularly demonstrated on the Great Lakes. Activities also include rifle firings, court martial re-enactments, and dances of the type done during the early days of Fort Mackinac with live musicians.</p><br>
<h3>Extant buildings</h3><br>
<p>There are 14 original buildings as part of the fort museum:</p><br>
<p>Fort Michilimackinac was an 18th-century French, and later British, fort and trading post at the Straits of Mackinac; it was built on the northern tip of the lower peninsula of the present-day state of Michigan in the United States. Built around 1715, and abandoned in 1783, it was located along the Straits, which connect Lake Huron and Lake Michigan of the Great Lakes of North America. Present-day Mackinaw City developed around the site of the fort, which has been designated as a National Historic Landmark. It is preserved as an open-air historical museum, with several reconstructed wooden buildings and palisade.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The primary purpose of the fort was as part of the French-Canadian trading post system, which stretched from the Atlantic Coast and the St. Lawrence River to the Great Lakes, and south to the Mississippi River through the Illinois Country. The fort served as a supply depot for traders in the western Great Lakes.</p><br>
<p>The French had first established a presence in the Straits of Mackinac in 1671 when Father Marquette established the Jesuit St. Ignace Mission at present-day St. Ignace in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In 1683, they augmented the mission with Fort de Buade. In 1701, Sieur de Cadillac moved the French garrison to Fort Detroit and closed the mission.</p><br>
<p>By 1713, however, the French decided to re-establish a presence along the Straits of Mackinac, and built the wooden Fort Michilimackinac on the northern tip of the lower peninsula. They sent Constant le Marchand de Lignery with a contingent of soldiers and workmen in 1715 to accomplish the job. Over the decades, they made several modifications and expansions to the palisade walls. Chevalier Jacques Testard de Montigny, who was a Lt. and a Knight of the Order of St. Louis, was appointed in 1730 and served for three years as commandant of the fort. He was previously commandant of Fort La Baye (Green Bay, Wisconsin). Many of his relatives settled in Michigan.</p><br>
<p>The French relinquished the fort, along with their territory in Canada, to the British in 1761 following their loss in the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years&#39; War. The British continued to operate the fort as a major trading post, but most residents were French and Métis (Ojibwe-French), who spoke predominately French and worshipped at Sainte Anne Church in a small log structure. Other civilian residents included British fur traders, some of whom resided within the fort in the southeastern row house.</p><br>
<p>The Ojibwe in the region resented British policies as harsh. On June 2, 1763, as part of the larger movement known as Pontiacs Rebellion, a group of Ojibwe staged a game of baagaadowe (a forerunner of modern lacrosse) outside the fort as a ruse to gain entrance. After entering the fort, they killed most of the British inhabitants. They held the fort for a year before the British regained control, promising to offer more and better gifts to the native inhabitants of the area.</p><br>
<p>The British eventually determined that the wooden fort on the mainland was too vulnerable. In 1781 they built a limestone fort on nearby Mackinac Island. Now known as Fort Mackinac, it was apparently also initially named Fort Michilimackinac. The British then moved related buildings to the island by dismantling them and moving them across the water in the summer and over ice in winter to the island during the next two years. Ste. Anne&#39;s Church was also moved. Patrick Sinclair, the lieutenant governor of Michilimackinac, ordered the remains of the southern Fort Michilimackinac to be destroyed after the move.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In 1960 the fort grounds were designated a National Historic Landmark. This is a popular tourist attraction as part of Colonial Michilimackinac State Park in Mackinaw City, a major component of the Mackinac State Historic Parks. Interpreters, both paid and volunteer, help bring the history to life with music, live demonstrations, and reenactments, including musket and cannon firing demonstrations. The site has numerous reconstructed historical wooden structures based on archeological excavations. This is considered one of the most extensively excavated early colonial French archaeological sites in the United States. The fort grounds also contain the foot of the Mackinac Bridge, the Old Mackinac Point Light (an 1892 lighthouse), and a day-use park with a view of the Mackinac Bridge and Mackinac Island.</p><br>
<p>The Kleine Scheidegg  is a mountain pass at an elevation of 2,061 m, situated below and between the Eiger and Lauberhorn peaks in the Bernese Oberland region of Switzerland. The name means "minor watershed", even though it is actually higher than the neighbouring Grosse Scheidegg. Possibly this is because Kleine Scheidegg is a watershed between the two arms of the Lütschine river, while Grosse Scheidegg divides the Lütschine from the Rychenbach stream.</p><br>
<p>The pass is traversed by a walking trail and the Wengernalp railway, which both connect the villages of Grindelwald with Lauterbrunnen, passing through Wengen between the pass summit and Lauterbrunnen. In winter, Kleine Scheidegg is the centre of the ski area around Grindelwald and Wengen. In summer, it is a popular hiking destination, and is one of the passes crossed by the Alpine Pass Route between Sargans and Montreux. The Jungfrau Marathon, a mountain race that takes place every year in early September, ends at Kleine Scheidegg.</p><br>
<p>The Kleine Scheidegg railway station is sited at the summit of the pass. Besides being an intermediate stop on the Wengernalp railway, the station is also the lower terminus of the Jungfrau railway, which climbs steeply through tunnels inside the Eiger and Mönch mountains up to its terminal at the Jungfraujoch, the highest point reachable by rail in Europe. Both railways operate year-round, and any passengers travelling to the Jungfraujoch must change trains at Kleine Scheidegg. The pass is linked to the summit of the Lauberhorn and to Arvengarten, on the approach to the pass from Grindelwald, by chairlifts.</p><br>
<p>There are also several restaurants and hotels at the summit of the pass, including the historic Hotel Bellevue des Alpes that dates back to 1840.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the coming of the railways and the introduction of tourism to the area, the twin passes of Kleine Scheidegg and Grosse Scheidegg provided access for local livestock and dairy farmers to the important export route to Italy over the Grimsel Pass. With the coming of tourism and the opening of the first mountain hotels in the 1830s, the transit of the Kleine Scheidegg became busier, and more important than the Grosse Scheidegg.</p><br>
<p>In 1840, Christian Seiler built the inn Zur Gemse on the summit of the pass. Guests and supplies reached the inn by mule train over the pass tracks, and the inn grew into the internationally famous Hotel Bellevue. The Wengernalp co-operative opened the competing Hotel des Alps alongside the Hotel Bellevue, but sold out to the Seiler family, thus creating the merged Hotel Bellevue des Alps.</p><br>
<p>In order to satisfy tourist demand, construction of the Wengernalp railway across the pass commenced in 1891, and the line opened in 1893, as a steam hauled summer only service. The line was electrified in 1909/10, and year-round operation started in 1925 (to Lauterbrunnen) and 1960 (to Grindelwald). Construction of the Jungfrau railway started in 1896, and it opened in stages from 1898 to 1912.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kleine Scheidegg is among the most celebrated mountain passes in the Swiss Alps because of its position just north of the point where the Bernese Alps makes a salient angle, whose apex is the Eiger. From there, a series of high peaks rise in line towards the northeast, on the left side of the trail that follows a direct route from Meiringen, southwest across the Grosse Scheidegg, to Kleine Scheidegg. On the south side of the apex at the Eiger, the still higher summits of the Mönch, Jungfrau, Gletscherhorn, and Mittaghorn follow in succession from north to south.</p><br>
<p>Hidden by the Eiger from the vantage point of Grindelwald, the Mönch and Jungfrau break upon the traveller at Kleine Scheidegg in full grandeur, rising from the narrow gorge of the Trümmletental. Three comparatively large glaciers, with several minor accumulations of ice, are found in the hollows and on the shelving ledges of the three peaks that rise above the Trümmletental. The Eiger Glacier lies in the recess between the Eiger and the Mönch. This is separated by a huge projecting buttress of the latter mountain from the Guggi Glacier. Farther on is the Giessen Glacier, formed, at a higher level than the two last, on a shelf of the northwest side of the Jungfrau.</p><br>
<p>Politically, the pass at Kleine Scheidegg marks the boundary between the municipalities of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald, both of which are within the canton of Bern.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The film Kleine Scheidegg (1937) was set on the eponymous pass, directed by Richard Schweizer, and starring Susanne Baader, Leopold Biberti and Emil Hegetschweiler.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1974, Clint Eastwood and his cast and crew stayed at the Hotel Bellevue des Alpes at Kleine Scheidegg while filming The Eiger Sanction (1975). Several scenes were filmed in and around the hotel.</p><br>
<p>The 2008 film North Face, about Toni Kurz and Andreas Hinterstoissers 1936 attempt to climb the Eiger north face, was shot to a great extent at the Hotel Bellevue des Alpes. Footage of the mountains profile was also shot from Kleine Scheidegg&#39;s vantage point, though the climbing scenes were created mostly using computer generated imagery and green screen technology.</p><br>
<p>The hiking track in the area is the basis for the fictional Eiger Nordwand tracks in the computer games Gran Turismo HD, Gran Turismo 5 Prologue and Gran Turismo 5.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<p>The Church of St Margaret, Westminster Abbey, is situated in the grounds of Westminster Abbey on Parliament Square, and is the Anglican parish church of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in London. It is dedicated to Margaret of Antioch.</p><br>
<h2>History and description</h2><br>
<p>Founded in the twelfth century by Benedictine monks, so that local people who lived in the area around the Abbey could worship separately at their own simpler parish church, and historically part of the hundred of Ossulstone in the county of Middlesex, St Margarets was rebuilt from 1486 to 1523. It became the parish church of the Palace of Westminster in 1614, when the Puritans of the seventeenth century, unhappy with the highly liturgical Abbey, chose to hold Parliamentary services in the more "suitable" St Margarets: a practice that has continued since that time.</p><br>
<p>The Rector of St Margaret&#39;s is a canon of Westminster Abbey.</p><br>
<p>The north-west tower was rebuilt by John James from 1734 to 1738; at the same time, the whole structure was encased in Portland stone. Both the eastern and the western porch were added later by J. L. Pearson. The church&#39;s interior was greatly restored and altered to its current appearance by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1877, although many of the Tudor features were retained.</p><br>
<h3>Commemorative windows and notable burials</h3><br>
<p>Notable features include the east window of 1509 of Flemish stained glass, created to commemorate the betrothal of Catherine of Aragon to Henry VIII. Other windows commemorate William Caxton, Britain&#39;s first printer, who was buried at the church in 1491, Sir Walter Raleigh, executed in Old Palace Yard and then also buried in the church in 1618, the poet John Milton, a parishioner of the church, and Admiral Robert Blake. The collector Henry Constantine Jennings is also buried there.</p><br>
<p>Other notable burials include those of John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley, "Lord Quondam", 18 September 1553; his wife Lady Cicely Grey, 28 April 1554; William Murray, 2nd Earl of Tullibardine, 30 July 1627; Edward Grimeston, 14 December 1640; and Wenceslas Hollar, died 25 March 1677. Also Bishop Nicholas Clagett.</p><br>
<p>Following the Restoration of the Monarchy, in 1661 the Parliamentarians who had been buried in Westminster Abbey (Admiral Robert Blake, Denis Bond, Nicholas Boscawen, Mary Bradshaw, Sir William Constable, Admiral Richard Deane, Isaac Dorislaus, Anne Fleetwood, Thomas Hesilrige, Humphrey Mackworth, Stephen Marshall, Thomas May, John Meldrum, Admiral Edward Popham, John Pym, Humphrey Salwey, William Strong, William Stroud and William Twiss) were disinterred from the Abbey and reburied in an unmarked pit in St Margaret&#39;s churchyard on the orders of King Charles II. A memorial to them can now be found set into the external wall to the left of the main west entrance.</p><br>
<h2>Weddings</h2><br>
<p>The church has been a common venue for society weddings which include:</p><br>
<p>1 December 1655: Samuel Pepys and Elisabeth de St. Michel</p><br>
<p>12 June 1895: William Hicks and Grace Lynn Joynson</p><br>
<p>12 September 1908: Winston Churchill and Clementine Hozier</p><br>
<p>21 April 1920: Harold Macmillan, and Lady Dorothy Cavendish</p><br>
<p>18 July 1922: Lord Louis Mountbatten, and Edwina Ashley</p><br>
<p>Other weddings include that of extended members of the British Royal Family:</p><br>
<p>8 October 1993: David Armstrong-Jones, Viscount Linley, and the Honourable Serena Stanhope</p><br>
<p>Others notable weddings include members of the Bright Young People. (American ed.: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York, 2009)</p><br>
<p>The ensemble of St Margaret&#39;s, the Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey is a World Heritage Site. Members of Parliament and staff members of the House of Lords and House of Commons are permitted to marry in the church.</p><br>
<h2>Other notable events</h2><br>
<p>During the First World War, Edward Lyttelton, headmaster of Eton, gave a sermon at the church on the theme of "Loving your enemies". He spoke of his opinion that any post-war treaty with Germany should be a just one and not a vindictive one. He had to leave the church after the service by a back door, while a number of demonstrators sang "Rule Britannia" in protest at his attitude.</p><br>
<h2>Choirs</h2><br>
<p>The treble choristers for St Margaret&#39;s are supplied by Westminster Under School. The church also hosted the first performance by the UK Parliament Choir under Simon Over in 2000.</p><br>
<h2>Organ</h2><br>
<p>An organ was installed in 1806 by John Avery. The current organ is largely built by J. W. Walker & Sons Ltd. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register.</p><br>
<h2>Rectors</h2><br>
<p>From 1972 to 2010, the Rector was also the Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons.</p><br>
<p>William Hartley Carnegie (1912 to 1936).</p><br>
<p>David Edwards (1972 to 1978)</p><br>
<p>John Baker (1978 to 1982)</p><br>
<p>Trevor Beeson (1982 to 1987)</p><br>
<p>Donald Gray (1987 to 1998)</p><br>
<p>Robert Wright (1998 to 2010)</p><br>
<p>Andrew Tremlett (2010 to 2016)</p><br>
<p>Jane Sinclair (2016 onwards)</p><br>
<h2>Organists</h2><br>
<p>Organists who have played at St Margaret&#39;s include:</p><br>
<p>Robert Whyte 1570–1574</p><br>
<p>John Egglestone</p><br>
<p>John Parsons 1616–1621 (then organist of Westminster Abbey)</p><br>
<p>John Hilton 1628 – 1657(?)</p><br>
<p>John Blow, 1695–????</p><br>
<p>Bernard Smith, 1676–1708</p><br>
<p>Henry Turner 1708–????</p><br>
<p>John Illam ????–1726</p><br>
<p>Edward Purcell, son of Henry Purcell, 1726–1740</p><br>
<p>James Butler 1740 – 1772</p><br>
<p>William Rock 1774 – 1802</p><br>
<p>Michael Rock 1802 – 1809</p><br>
<p>John Bernard Sale 1809 – 1838</p><br>
<p>T.G. Baines around 1864</p><br>
<p>Walter Galpin Alcock ???? – 1896</p><br>
<p>Edwin Lemare 1897 – 1902</p><br>
<p>Reginald Goss-Custard 1902 – 1914</p><br>
<p>Edwin Stephenson 1914 – 1922 (formerly organist of St Philip&#39;s Cathedral, Birmingham)</p><br>
<p>Herbert Dawson 1929 – 1965</p><br>
<p>Martin Neary 1965 – 1972</p><br>
<p>Richard Hickox 1972 – 1982</p><br>
<p>Thomas Trotter</p><br>
<p>Simon Over 1992 – 2002</p><br>
<p>Zoe Rachel Ryan 2010 – present</p><br>
<p>Pico das Agulhas Negras is the fifth-highest mountain in Brazil, standing at 2,791 m above sea level, making it one of the highest in the Brazilian Highlands. It is located in Itatiaia National Park, in the Serra da Mantiqueira range, on the border of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. It is the highest point in the state of Rio de Janeiro, the third-highest peak in Minas Gerais, and the second-highest in the Mantiqueira range.</p><br>
<p>The climb to the top was first attempted by Franklin Massena in 1856. Further attempts were made by André Rebouças in 1878 and by Horácio de Carvalho in 1898, but the summit was only reached in 1919, by Carlos Spierling and Osvaldo Leal.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Its name means Black Needles Peak, because of the sharp dark rocks on its top, which give it a distinctive shape. The peak&#39;s massif is known as Itatiaia, which means "stone with many sharp points" in Tupi. The highest rock, with the summit, is known as Itatiaiaçu, or simply Açu (a Tupi suffix meaning "big") among Brazilian mountaineers.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Pico das Agulhas Negras can be seen to the northwest of Resende when driving between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro on the Via Dutra highway, but this is only possible at a few points on the road, because a lower mountain range closer to the road stands in the line-of-sight at most other nearby spots.</p><br>
<p>A mountain shelter called Abrigo Rebouças is located near the base of the peak, at an elevation of about 2,350 m. It is accessible by a badly maintained gravel road (BR-485) from the BR-354 federal highway at the Garganta do Registro mountain pass, via Itatiaia National Park&#39;s north entrance. The access road reaches an altitude of 2,460 m at the entrance of the park, and a short spur from it leading to a communications tower of the Eletrobras Furnas electricity company reaches 2,662 m; these are the highest points one can reach in a regular car (as opposed to off-road vehicles) in Brazil.</p><br>
<h2>Elevation measurements</h2><br>
<p>For years, Pico das Agulhas Negras was thought to be the highest mountain in Brazil. The title later went to Pico da Bandeira, in the Caparaó range between the states of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo (now known to be at 2,891 m). In 1965, it was found that Pico da Neblina, in the state of Amazonas, was, in fact, the highest, with a currently revised height of 2,995 m.</p><br>
<p>Even then, Pico das Agulhas Negras was still thought to be the highest point in the Mantiqueira Mountains, until a 2001 GPS measurement (later confirmed by an official joint expedition of the Brazilian Army and the Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics - IBGE) showed that nearby Pedra da Mina was that mountain range&#39;s highest point at 2,798 m, about seven metres higher than Agulhas Negras. Pedra da Mina was higher even though Agulhas Negras was also found to be slightly higher than previously thought, at 2,791.55 m, rather than its previous official altitude of 2,787 m. Pico das Agulhas Negras remains the highest point in Rio de Janeiro state.</p><br>
<p>In 2015, IBGE completed a new and more accurate mapping of the Brazilian territory regarding the geoid, the irregular imaginary surface based on the Earth&#39;s gravitational field that is the reference for altitude measurements. This led the institution to recalculate the altitude of the mountains measured in the earlier project, according to the new reference. The new data were published in February 2016. Pico das Agulhas Negras was then found to stand at 2,790.94 m, a difference of 61 cm or about two feet.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hungabee, officially Hungabee Mountain, is a mountain located on the boundaries of Banff National Park and Yoho National Park on the Continental Divide at the head of Paradise Valley. The peak was named in 1894 by Samuel Allen after the Stoney Indian  word for "chieftain" as the mountain is higher than its neighbouring peaks. The mountain can be seen from the Icefields Parkway  in the upper Bow Valley.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Hungabee was first climbed in 1903 by H.C. Parker who was guided by Hans Kaufmann and Christian Kaufmann.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>The normal climbing route is via the west ridge (III 5.4) which features route finding challenges. Early summer is not recommended due to avalanche hazard from snow on the NW face.</p><br>
<p>Mount Clemenceau is the fourth highest mountain in the Canadian Rockies. The peak was originally named "Pyramid" in 1892 by Arthur Coleman. The mountain was renamed by the Interprovincial Boundary Survey in 1919 to its present name, which is for Georges Clemenceau, premier of France during World War I.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Clemenceau was first climbed in 1923 by D.B. Durand, H.S. Hall, W.D. Harris and H.B. De V. Schwab.</p><br>
<h2>Routes</h2><br>
<p>There are three standard climbing routes:</p><br>
<p>West Face II</p><br>
<p>This is the normal route, similar to the north glacier route (normal) on Mount Athabasca but considered more interesting. The route avoids the steepest parts of the face.</p><br>
<p>North-East Ridge IV</p><br>
<p>North Face IV</p><br>
<p>Danebury is an Iron Age hill fort in Hampshire in England, about 19 km north-west of Winchester. The site, covering 5 hectare, was excavated by Barry Cunliffe in the 1970s. Danebury is considered a type-site for hill forts, and was important in developing the understanding of hill forts, as very few others have been so intensively excavated.</p><br>
<p>Built in the 6th century BC, the fort was in use for almost 500 years, during a period when the number of hill forts in Wessex greatly increased. Danebury was remodelled several times, making it more complex and resulting in it becoming a "developed" hill fort. It is now protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument, a Site of Special Scientific Interest. and a Local Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<h2>Investigation</h2><br>
<p>Until the 19th century very little was known about hill forts, as none had been excavated and their original purpose had been long forgotten. In the medieval period, their construction was attributed variously to iconic figures such as King Arthur, King Alfred, the Danes, Julius Caesar, and even giants. By the 18th century, it was widely thought that hill forts were Roman in origin.</p><br>
<p>Interest in hill forts was roused by the investigation of a hill fort at Worlebury Hill in the early-19th century. The first excavation at Danebury was carried out in November 1859, under antiquarian Augustus Wollaston Franks. His workers cleared out an Iron Age pit that was 2 m deep and 1.5 m in diameter, although they were not able to ascertain its purpose.</p><br>
<p>The first widespread investigation of hill forts was carried out in the second half of the 19th century under Augustus Pitt-Rivers. Pitt-Rivers&#39; work on the hill forts of Sussex led him to the conclusion that most hill forts were built in the Iron Age, and it paved the way for future work on hill forts. In the 1920s and 1930s, there was "hill fort mania" in British archaeology; by 1940, about 80 had been archaeologically excavated.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1960s, Barry Cunliffe decided to examine a single hill fort and its surrounding territory in an attempt to shed light on Iron Age society, its politics, and population. With the permission of the site&#39;s owner, Hampshire County Council, archaeological excavations began in 1969 and continued until 1988. Over the twenty seasons archaeologists spent examining the site, they looked at the defences and the gateway, and excavated 57% of the interior, where the remains of wattle and timber houses were discovered. It was the lengthiest investigation of any hill fort in western Europe.</p><br>
<p>A further non-invasive survey was carried out in 1997, as part of the Wessex Hillforts Project, using a magnetometer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is no historical record of events in Iron Age Britain, so archaeological investigation is the only way to reconstruct the history of Danebury, and other such hill forts. It is impossible to state with certainty every significant event in the hill fort’s history, but where an event leaves an archaeologically identifiable trace, a general chronology can be established, although dates are much less easy to establish. The hill fort was occupied from the mid-6th century BC until around 100 BC, and the defences were remodelled numerous times.</p><br>
<p>Early in its life the site consisted of a single ditch encompassing an area of about 5 hectare, with two gateways, one in the south-west and another in the east; two more rings of ditches were added later. The north part of the fort was occupied by four-post structures, probably granaries, which were later replaced by storage pits, and in the south part, there were roundhouses in between granaries and storage pits. When Danebury was built in the 6th century BC, it coincided with the construction of several other hillforts in the Wessex region, all of a similar size and layout.</p><br>
<p>The first phase of defences dates from around 550 BC, and consists of a rampart behind a ditch. When the ditch was cut, the chalk rubble fill was used to build the rampart, along with some of the local clay soil. The material was contained by timber, making it a box rampart with a vertical face.</p><br>
<p>At least 50 years after the rampart was first built, it was raised with the addition of more chalk material; this has been interpreted as maintenance work due to the ramparts beginning to collapse as the timber box started to rot. Around the same time the ramparts were altered, the east gateway was widened to 9 m. The gates were burnt down not long after the east gateway was altered. For a short time the hill fort was gateless, when the east gateway was repaired the passage from the entrance was lengthened.</p><br>
<p>In around 400 BC</p><br>
<p>Although the rampart and ditch were in use for a long time, during this period the east gateway was remodelled twice, making it longer, and creating earthworks on each side of the approach. The southwest gateway was given extra defences in the form of earthworks before being abandoned and filled in. Also in this period, the southern part of the fort became populated with four- and six-post structures, probably granaries, replacing the earlier roundhouses. The fort&#39;s centre was probably used for shrines while houses were mainly built close to the ramparts. A new series of earthworks was created beyond the already existing ring, turning Danebury into a complex multivallate (more than one series of earthworks) fort. They added 5.3 hectare to the fort and probably were used to protect livestock.</p><br>
<p>Danebury was abandoned around 100 BC, in common with the trend across Britain for hill forts to fall out of use around that time. Once again, the east gate was burnt down, although this time it was not replaced. By the start of the 1st century AD, the settlement of Danebury was probably nothing more than a single farm.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretation</h2><br>
<p>Danebury Hill, on top of which the hill fort sits, rises to 143 m. The hill fort dominates the local landscape, which rarely rises above 100 m, and has commanding views of the area. The surrounding country has light soil that would have been easily cultivated. Territory commanded by Danebury included areas of forest, pasture in the uplands, and access to water sources in the form of the River Test. To the west runs Wallop Brook which flows south east into the River Test.</p><br>
<p>The nearby hill forts of Figsbury Ring, Quarley Hill, and Bury Hill were probably established around the same time as Danebury. All of a similar size, the hillforts were generally equally spaced, commanding similar sized territories and resources. There is some debate whether hill forts were purely defensive structures, and to what extent they were occupied. Cunliffe interprets the ramparts as essentially defensive, although he concedes that they may have been a means of displaying wealth and power, as Danebury would have been visible for miles around.</p><br>
<p>The ramparts were the strongest part of the fort, with the entrances the weakest. The complex gateways support the view that the site was militaristic; the long, curving east entrance maximised the time it would have taken for attackers to enter the fort and would have allowed defenders on the ramparts more time to hurl missiles, while the southwest entrance narrowed forcing attackers together and causing disarray. Iron Age society was, in Cunliffes view, "effervescent... essentially unstable, and prone to conflict", and he uses the possible military nature of hill forts to support this view. The burning of the gates was probably the result of an attack, and the charnel pits dating from the end of the intense period of Daneburys occupation contain about 100 bodies, many with injuries that appear to have been inflicted by weapons such as spears and swords.</p><br>
<p>Surrounding Danebury hill fort are many smaller farmsteads, between 1 hectare and 2 hectare in size. The fort was supplied with grain from the surrounding farmsteads, and could hold 20 times more food than the average farmstead, indicating Danebury had a higher status than local farmsteads. This is further supported by the fact that the hill fort was used as a "central place" where people could gather to trade and store commodities. Periods of intensified activity in hill forts such as Danebury coinciding with depopulation of the surrounding landscape could indicate the increasing importance of hill forts in society, or that there were times of unrest when people would retreat to the relative safety of a hill fort&#39;s ramparts.</p><br>
<p>While other hill forts were abandoned in the 4th century BC, in about 400 BC Danebury grew into what is known as a "developed hill fort". Danebury&#39;s importance in the landscape increased over time, as demonstrated by its continued use until around 100 AD. It was possibly inhabited by a king or chieftain and his family, retinue, and craftsmen, and may have housed a population of 200&ndash;350. There are traces of craft and industry on a large scale, and use of the site by a social elite is indicated by the presence of shrines in the centre of the fort.</p><br>
<p>Lake Merritt is a large tidal lagoon in the center of Oakland, California, just east of Downtown. It is surrounded by parkland and city neighborhoods. It is historically significant as the United States first official wildlife refuge, designated in 1870, and has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1966. The lake features grassy shores; several artificial islands intended as bird refuges; an interpretive center called the Rotary Nature Center; a boating center where sailboats, canoes and rowboats can be rented and classes are held; and a fairy tale themed amusement park called Childrens Fairyland. A popular walking and jogging path runs along its perimeter. The circumference of the lake is 3.4 mi and its area is 155 acre.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The lake was originally an arm of the San Francisco Bay formed where several creeks empty into the bay. It was surrounded by 1,000 acre of wetlands when the Ohlone people fished, hunted and gathered food along its shores. By 1810, the remaining Native Americans were removed to Mission San José and the estuary and 44,800 acre of surrounding land was deeded to Sergeant Luis Maria Peralta to become Rancho San Antonio. After gold was discovered in 1848 in present-day Coloma 125 mi to the northeast, Anglo squatters led by lawyer Horace Carpentier took control of the East Bay area which was to become downtown Oakland, including the estuary known as "San Antonio Slough." In 1856, Peralta fought and won a United States Supreme Court case against the squatters but further court cases between his sons and daughters would greatly diminish their holdings. The Peralta brothers had to sell much of the land to Carpentier to pay legal fees and new property taxes. Oakland was incorporated in 1852 with Carpentier as its first mayor and the estuary became the city&#39;s sewer.</p><br>
<p>Lake Merritt naturally had tidal flows via a broad 600 foot outlet, but this has been steadily reduced with development of the region after 1869. Currently the tidal flows are limited in size and managed for flood control. For years the lake acted as a waste collector. It was regarded as ideal for sewage because of its chemical contents, which have high acidities that cause it to decompose human feces at very high rates. Sixty miles of brick and wood channeling sent the broken down sewage to the bottom of the lake to then be eaten by bottom feeders. The stench at the lake during the decomposition of the sewage was a problem for Oaklanders on the west shore and residents of Clinton and San Antonio villages on the east.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Samuel Merritt, a mayor of Oakland who owned property at the shores edge, was keen to get the body of water cleaned up so that it could become a source of civic pride. In 1868, he proposed and funded a dam between the estuary and the bay by which the flow of water could be controlled, allowing the water level inland to rise higher and become less saline, turning the tidal lagoon into a lake. Sewage was to be redirected elsewhere by two new city projects, though these werent completed until 1875. The resulting body of water was called variously "Lake Peralta", "Merritt&#39;s Lake" and later Lake Merritt.</p><br>
<p>The lake at that time still had thick wetlands fringing the shores and it continued to attract large numbers of migratory birds. In order to protect the birds from duck hunters and stop the noise and danger of gunfire so close to the city, Dr. Merritt proposed to turn the lake into a wildlife refuge in 1869. The state legislature voted Lake Merritt Wildlife Refuge into law in 1870, making it the first such refuge in North America. No hunting of any sort was to be allowed and the only fishing was to be by hook and line.</p><br>
<p>The ornate Camron-Stanford House was built in 1876 near the lakes western shore. Tax records suggest that Samuel Merritt built the Italianate Victorian as part of his plan to promote and develop downtown Oakland and the new lake. In 1877, the houses title was transferred to Mrs. Alice Camron, a purchase she was able to make due to an inheritance. She, her husband Will and their two daughters were the first residents of the home. Further fine homes were built on the lakeshore by others following Dr. Merritt&#39;s lead, though none but Camron-Stanford remain today. From 1910 until 1967, the house served as the Oakland Public Museum with an active program of changing exhibits and educational programs for children.</p><br>
<p>Protection for the wetlands was nonexistent and residences kept being built on reclaimed land around the shore of the lake. Cleanliness continued to be a problem because of incomplete sewage projects and the lake kept silting up since the natural tidal flow had been interrupted by Merritt&#39;s dam. Dredging of the lake began in 1891, with the removed silt being piled along the eastern shore to make a foundation for a road which became Lakeshore Avenue.</p><br>
<p>From 1893 to 1915, Lake Merritt saw major changes. Inspired by the new City Beautiful movement which got its start at the Worlds Columbian Exposition (Chicago Worlds Fair), the lake became a city-owned park. In 1913 an elaborate Mission Revival pergola was constructed at the northeastern tip of the lake. Adams Point was cleared of houses, planted with lawns and imported trees and became Lakeside Park. Eastshore Park was created where East 18th Street brought Trestle Glens watershed to the lake. Oakland Civic Auditorium was built at the south edge of the lake in 1914.</p><br>
<p>1923 saw Cleveland Cascade spring into life, conceived and assisted by noted landscape architect, Howard Gilkey. This was a three-tiered water feature incorporating multiple waterfalls tumbling sequentially into twenty large collection basins and a pool at the bottom, flanked by twin stairs descending from Cleveland Heights to Lakeshore Avenue. Colored lights in rainbow sequence lit the waterfall at night.</p><br>
<p>In 1925, the "Necklace of Lights" was turned on.</p><br>
<p>1929 is the year the luxurious Bellevue-Staten apartments were completed at 492 Staten Avenue in Adam&#39;s Point near Lakeside Park. The 15-story blend of Art Deco and Spanish Colonial styles is one of the most prominent sights viewable from nearly every point of Lake Merritt.</p><br>
<p>Lake Merritt&#39;s natural wetlands are long gone&mdash;converted to parks, pathways and roads. Some of the wetland vegetation has been restored to five "Bird Islands" constructed of dredged silt between 1925 and 1956; islands which shelter hundreds of nesting and roosting water fowl. The islands have a fresh water irrigation system to bring drinking water to the birds. A boom and a rope/buoy barrier protects the islands from recreational boaters.</p><br>
<p>Under the name Lake Merritt Wild Duck Refuge, the site became a National Historic Landmark on May 23, 1963.</p><br>
<p>Childrens Fairyland is a 10-acre park designed by William Russell Everett, and built in 1950 in Lakeside Park. When Walt Disney was planning Disneyland, he visited Childrens Fairyland for ideas.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 1961, Oaklands "Downtown Property Owners Association," and the "Central Business District Association" repeatedly advocated for extending Alice Street directly through Snow Park, which was then the grounds of the Snow Museum, past the Schilling Gardens and the Bechtel Building at 244 Lakeside Drive, and down to the lakes edge on 20th Street. They purportedly sought to alleviate motorist traffic congestion that might be caused by the closure of Broadway during construction of the nearby BART line. The plan met stiff opposition from Oaklands City Council in October 1964, which, as reported by the Staff of the Oakland Tribune at the time, told downtown property interests to "quit wasting its time."</p><br>
<h2>Necklace of lights</h2><br>
<p>A "necklace of lights" encircles Lake Merritt. Featuring 126 lampposts and 3,400 "pearly bulbs", the necklace was first lit in 1925. In 1941, the lights were removed to comply with World War II blackout conditions. After a decade-long campaign by the Lake Merritt Breakfast Club, the lights were again illuminated in 1987.</p><br>
<h2>Birds</h2><br>
<p>The lake features a healthy year-round population of birds. It sees seasonal fluctuations in the types of birds that call the lake home.</p><br>
<h3>Year round</h3><br>
<p>Year round, the lake is home to many Canada geese and moderate numbers of black-crowned night heron, great egret, snowy egret, cormorant, American coot, and western gull. There are also small mallard duck and pelican (both American and brown) populations.</p><br>
<h3>Rainy season</h3><br>
<p>From November through March, the lake plays host to a very large population of greater scaup and lesser scaup, which spend most of their time floating on the water. The tufted duck, a rare bird from Eurasia, has also been recorded annually. Smaller numbers of canvasback, redhead, common and Barrow&#39;s goldeneye, bufflehead, and other migratory diving ducks are also present during the cold season.</p><br>
<h3>Dry season</h3><br>
<p>From June until the end of September, the lake&#39;s Canada goose population increases significantly; Canada geese become nearly ubiquitous around the perimeter of the lake. In late summer and early fall, a moderate pelican population also arrives, and Caspian terns can be seen on the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Plants</h2><br>
<p>Although native trees such as coast live oak and California buckeye are present, most of the park bordering Lake Merritt has been landscaped with plants from around the world. As early as 1910, City Park Commissioners recognized Oakland as a city of immigrants, and felt that “visitors to the park would want to see plants from their native lands”. This theme of diversity in the park landscape has continued with landscape renovations. The lake’s iconic plant is the New Zealand tea tree (Leptospermum sp.), which grows with picturesque gnarled branches along the water’s edge.</p><br>
<p>One zone of native plants has been established at the restored tidal marsh, located on the channel just south of the Lake Merritt Blvd. bridge. Pickleweed has been planted within the tidal zone, and other native plants such as saltgrass, marsh gumplant (Grindelia stricta var. angustifolia), marsh baccharis (Baccharis glutinosa), Jaumea, and Frankenia have been propagated from local genetic stock and planted on the slope above the marsh. A second native marsh plant zone is planned for the shoreline east of the Sailboat House.</p><br>
<p>Aquatic vegetation commonly seen within the lake itself include widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima), filamentous green algae (Enteromorpha and Cladophora sp.), sea lettuce (Ulva sp.), dead man’s fingers (Codium fragile) and occasionally wireweed (Sargassum muticum). Growth of these aquatic plants reaches a peak in mid-June, and the subsequent die-off and decomposition can result in bad odors, unsightly appearance, and depletion of oxygen in the water column. To prevent this nuisance condition, the City uses a floating mechanical harvester to remove excess growth during the summer months. The most common aquatic plants in Lake Merritt are tiny, free-floating phytoplankton. Visitors often do not appreciate the sometimes-murky water in the lake, but the cloudiness represents a water column rich in microscopic life, providing a basis for a diverse and thriving web of animal life at the lake, both marine and avian.</p><br>
<h2>Cleanup and restoration</h2><br>
<p>Because storm drains in downtown Oakland and surrounding areas drain directly into the lake, trash and nutrient pollution have become the largest problems affecting Lake Merritt. Increased levels of chemicals like nitrogen and phosphorus cause algae blooms, which deplete the water of oxygen. Aeration fountains, funded by donations, have been installed to help with this problem. "Water quality in an area of about one acre around each unit is improved by the transfer of oxygen from the air, and by mixing the top and bottom layers of the Lake." A proposed aeration system was never approved by the City of Oakland.</p><br>
<p>Trash removal is coordinated by the non-profit Lake Merritt Institute under contract with the City of Oakland. The Institute sponsors clean-ups five days a week during the school year, and four days a week during the summer. Individuals can also work alone using the four "U-Clean-It" boxes maintained by the Institute. One way volunteers clean the lake is by using long-handled nets. About 1,000 to 6,000 pounds of trash are removed monthly. Among the many individual and group volunteers, of special note are those who have been cleaning the trash since 1997: the regular Saturday and Tuesday volunteers, the Peralta Service Corporation (part of the Unity Council), St. Paul&#39;s Episcopal School, 6th Grade, and HandsOn Bay Area.</p><br>
<h3>Pollution</h3><br>
<p>In addition to nutrient pollution, more toxic agents have drained into the lake from time to time. In 1998, about 20 gallons of diesel fuel leaked into the lake following a "freakish accident" in the basement of the Caltrans building in the 100 block of Grand Avenue.</p><br>
<p>On June 27, 2011, the Oakland Fire Department and California Department of Fish and Game responded to a diesel fuel spill that covered five acres of the northwest side of the lake. "Because the storm drain connects to other storm drains in the city, and due to the heavy rain, White said firefighters were having difficulty finding where the spill originated."</p><br>
<h2>Measure DD improvements</h2><br>
<p>Measure DD, a $198 million Oakland City park bond measure, passed with 80% voter approval in 2002. The measure improved the lake area by adding park space and altering the surrounding infrastructure. One example is on Lake Merritt&#39;s south shore, where the previous configuration of 12th Street (six lanes in each direction) was considered a deterrent to pedestrian and bicycle access to landmarks such as Laney College, the Oakland Museum of California, and Lake Merritt Channel. Part of the Measure DD project renovated 12th Street, reducing traffic to three lanes in each direction, adding park space, and adding eleven more necklaces of lights to fill a gap.</p><br>
<p>The renovation of Lake Merritt, paid for with money from Measure DD, was briefly stalled by an environmental review lawsuit intended to prevent cutting trees around the lake, which was filed in 2006 by a group of concerned residents, "Friends of the Lake".</p><br>
<p>On October 17, 2007, an Alameda County Superior Court judge dismissed a lawsuit, making way for the renovation to proceed.</p><br>
<p>One of the first Measure DD projects, completed in 2007, was the renovation and rededication of the 1913 pergola at the north end of the lake. Several sections of Measure DD work were completed in 2008. The renovation of the 1909 Municipal Boat House into Lake Chalet restaurant was completed. Reconstruction of El Embarcadero between Grand Avenue and Lakeshore Avenue was completed. Lakeside Drive from just north of East 14th Street to 19th Street was narrowed from four lanes to two, and a bicycle lane added. Finally, new landscaping along the west side of the lake from 14th to 19th street and the east side from East 18th Street to El Embarcadero were completed. The largest part of the Measure DD work was the 12th Street Reconstruction Project on the south side of the lake. Replacement of the Frickstad Viaduct, or "12th Street Dam" (built 1950), and renovation of the roadways and tunnels</p><br>
<p>between the Kaiser Convention Center and the southern end of Lake Merritt began in May 2010 was completed in June 2013. The groundbreaking ceremony for the 12th Street Project took place on May 6, 2010 near the Frickstad Viaduct.</p><br>
<p>Another major milestone in the restoration of Lake Merritt was achieved in February 2013, when Mayor Jean Quan and other officials inaugurated a 750 ft-long channel, including a paved trail, a pedestrian bridge, and restored tidal marsh, a major step towards reconnecting Lake Merritt with San Francisco Bay. This stage was expected to double the water volume circulating in and out of the lake. In 2016, a culvert under 10th Street will be removed, extending the channel closer to the bay. The mayor announced plans for "a big citywide party" upon completion.</p><br>
<p>The Kalambo Falls on the Kalambo River is a 772 ft single-drop waterfall on the border of Zambia and Tanzania at the southeast end of Lake Tanganyika. The falls are some of the tallest uninterrupted falls in Africa . Downstream of the falls is the Kalambo Gorge, which has a width of about 1 km and a depth of up to 300 m, running for about 5 km before opening out into the Lake Tanganyika rift valley.</p><br>
<p>The falls were first seen by non-Africans in approximately 1913. Initially it was assumed that the height of falls exceeded 300 m, but measurements in the 1920s gave a more modest result, above 200 m. Later measurements, in 1956, gave a result of 221 m. After this several more measurements have been made, each with slightly different results. The width of the falls is 3.6–18 m.</p><br>
<p>Kalambo Falls is also considered one of the most important archaeological sites in Africa, with occupation spanning over 250,000 years.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Archaeologically, Kalambo Falls is one of the most important sites in Africa. It has produced a sequence of past human activity stretching over more than two hundred and fifty thousand years, with evidence of continuous habitation since the Late Early Stone Age until modern times. It was first excavated in 1953 by John Desmond (J.D.) Clark who recognized archaeological activity around a small basin lake upstream of the falls. Excavations in 1953, 1956, 1959, and 1963 allowed Clark to make conclusions about the multiple different cultures inhabiting the area over thousands of years of time.</p><br>
<h2>Pleistocene environmental reconstruction</h2><br>
<p>J.D. Clark&#39;s work incorporated both questions of the cultures who lived at the Kalambo Falls site as well as what their environment was like during times of occupation. Using plant (floral) and pollen analyses, Clark was able to conduct the process of. By studying pollen that settled on the earth during different environmental settings, Clark was able to form a general idea of what ecological factors affected the Kalambo Falls region at different times. In order to do this, Clark used a tool for drawing out sediment cores in order to observe and analyse the different layers below the surface of the earth today. He separated these layers into 6 different spectra, labeled zones U through Z. The law of superposition is important to note when discussing sedimentary layers; this law states that more recent layers of soil dispersal will overlie older ones.</p><br>
<p>Zone U The bottom of Clark&#39;s core sample is the oldest layer. Pollen samples collected indicate that swamp vegetation and an abundance of grass grew on the Kalambo River. The tests also indicated that the surrounding woodland grew during dry and hot climates. Clark concludes that the ground-water levels must have been high in order for a swamp and fringing, or riparian forest, to grow along the waters edge during a period of reduced rainfall.</p><br>
<p>Zone V Pollen collected from the next zone indicate an identical environment with the swamp and woodland vegetation that was not affected by climate conditions, such as the drop of 3° Celsius (C) in the area.</p><br>
<p>Zone W Pollen of plants that grow in more open areas with more rainfall were taken from Zone W. This indicates an increase in rainfall to about 75–100 cm and a woodland with an open canopy to allow that rainfall to reach the ground below.</p><br>
<p>Zone X Clark indicates that the study of this zone was only on one sample drawn from the soil below, so the conclusions are not finite in his study. Plants indicated show a fringing forest that was poorly developed with a very open woodland. Within these woodland conditions, there seems to be an influence of evergreen elements that emerged.</p><br>
<p>Zone Y Clark was able to date this zone to approximately 27,000 to 30,000 years ago, because conditions were comparable to those dated in European soils from this time. Evidence of an increase in rainfall and a temperature drop of 4.1 °C with a fringing forest that was well developed with the return of swamp plants is indicated in the pollen collected.</p><br>
<p>Zone Z The final zone indicates a much poorer fringing forest and a reduced shift of vegetation growth at the time.</p><br>
<h2>Culture history of the site</h2><br>
<h3>Early Stone Age</h3><br>
<p>The Early Stone Age is described by Barham and Mitchell as the time period where the ancient ancestors of Homo sapiens sapiens first emerged, branching from the Australopithecus afarensis, evolving into Homo habilis and then Homo erectus 2.6 million years ago to 280,000 years ago. Archaeologists hypothesize that the technological progression over time can be examined in the morphological characteristics of tools that are associated with different eras of habitation. The earliest identified stone tools, made by Homo habilis are known as Oldowan tools, and they consist of the basic large pounding stones and small pebble flakes, known as Mode 1 technology. As time progressed and Homo habilis evolved into Homo erectus, so did the technology as more specialized stone tools were being developed, even tools that were used for making other tools, Mode 2 and 3 technologies.</p><br>
<p>These Late Acheulean stone tools, along with hearths and well-preserved organic objects were found at Kalambo Falls and documented by JD Clark. These organic artifacts collected included a wooden club and digging sticks as well as the dietary evidence for fruit consumption. Tools excavated from Kalambo Gorge have been analyzed and OSL dating of quartzite within the soil context to between 500,000 and 50,000 years ago, with amino acid racemization dating the oldest artifacts to 100,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Stone Age</h3><br>
<p>The Middle Stone age, dated at 280,000 years ago to roughly 40,000 years ago, McBrearty, S and Brooks, A.</p><br>
<p>1999. "The Revolution that Wasn&#39;t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior" is the period where the final stages of hominid evolution brought what is known today as "modern human behavior".</p><br>
<p>During this time, the Acheulean industry of Kalambo Falls was superseded by the Sangoan culture. This shift is considered by Clark as a result of an ecological shift to a cooler and wetter climate. It is at this time in the archaeological record that the large, Acheulean handaxe disappears and is replaced by the core axe and chopping tools characteristic of Sangoan technologies. Heavy woodworking tools and small, notched and denticulated tools, collected by Clark, were dated to have been made before 41,000 BC. This rapid change is predicted to be a result of population movement during this time period, as the "Acheulean man" who lived in open settlements were replaced by a culture associated with Homo rhodesiensis found at Broken Hill, the Sangoan culture. Evidence of Sangoan habitation has been collected from less open Rock Shelters and Cave areas, possibly due to the persisting, wetter climate.</p><br>
<p>Evidence of fire technologies, such as hearths, charred logs, reddened clay, and stone heat spalls were also collected and found in association with charcoal remains. Radiocarbon dates of the scattered charcoal indicate people were using fire systematically there some 60,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>The cool, wet climates of the region were similar to that of the Congo, and similar cultural practices have been identified at Kalambo Falls, known as Lupemban industries. Evidence suggests that the Sangoan tradition was replaced by the Lupemban industry around 250,000 years ago and continued through to 117,000 years ago. It is characterized by two-sided, or bifacial, stone tools like core axes and double-ended points that were possibly for hafting as spearheads. Geological studies by J.D. Clark indicate that the frequency of these tools is possibly due to factors that exemplified the amount of large pieces of breakable, or knappable, raw materials.</p><br>
<h3>Later Stone Age</h3><br>
<p>The Later Stone Age is the final age of the Paleolithic Era of Africa, and generally refers to more recent hunter/gatherer sites. Around 10,000 years ago Kalambo Falls was occupied by the Magosian culture which in turn gave way to Wilton activity.</p><br>
<h3>Iron Age and the Luangwa tradition</h3><br>
<p>Around the fourth century AD, a more industrialized Bantu-speaking people began to farm and occupy the area. These Bantu-speaking people made ceramic vessels that have characteristics of East African pottery, which suggests a population movement from the Rift Valley. Burials from this period are characterized by Clark as shaft grave burials, which are similar to those of the earlier cultures of the East African Rift as opposed to the Kalambo region.</p><br>
<p>The Iron Age in Zambia is split into an earlier, regionally categorized period and a later period of materialistically differing traditions. Early assemblages of iron tools and pottery have been collected from the Kalambo Falls and are categorized as being from the Kalambo Group tradition. At Kalambo falls, Early Iron Age traditions are believed to have continued into the 11th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1971, Robert C. Soper studied different assemblages of Iron Age pottery in eastern and southern Africa and consolidated them into two major groups, known as Urewe and Kwale wares. He indicated that Kalambo and Mwabulambo pot traditions may also be included in these. David W. Phillipson used these conclusions to form a north to south chronology of artifacts and comprised many of the groups studied by Soper into one, Mwitu tradition. This tradition is exhibited by pots that range from the first millennium AD.</p><br>
<p>The Kalambo group was replaced by the Luangwa tradition, whose pottery is similar to the Early Iron Age Chondwe Group of the Central African Copperbelt. Luangwa Pottery is characteristic of necked pots and shallow bowls, with the most common comb-stamped decoration pressed in a horizontal pattern of delineated lines. There has yet to be found any evidence for an interface between this Luangwa tradition and the Early Iron Age tradition at Kalambo Falls, whereas sites at the Eastern Province of Zambia exhibit this interrelationship. Exact dates for this transition in the Kalambo area are inconclusive, but the tradition has continued through to the present.</p><br>
<h2>Chronology of the site</h2><br>
<p>Attempts to date artifacts from Kalambo Falls have resulted in inconsistent results, ranging from 110,000 years ago with racemization to 182,000 ±10,000 to 76,000 ±10,000 years ago with applied uranium series dating. These studies underscore the difficulty in establishing a chronology for human habitation at the falls, which has led some archaeologists to disregard its significance in the African archaeological record.</p><br>
<p>However, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) on quartz artifacts has recently improved understanding of the site&#39;s chronology. OSL works by sending signals through a crystalline material and collects data on how long ago the stone was exposed to light or heat.</p><br>
<p>OSL results have led to the creation of a new chronology for the site, broken into six stages. Stage 1 ranges between approximately 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. Stage 2 ranges from 300,000 to 50,000 years ago. Stage 3 dates range from 50,000 to 30,000 years ago. Stage 4 deposits date to 1,500 to 500 years ago and Stage 5 follows after 490 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Acheulean stone tools (Mode 2 and 3 technologies) were collected from stratigraphic layers corresponding to the first and second stages. More complex Mode 3 tools came from the first three stages and are also found in Stage 4, whose corresponding layers contain a mix of Stone and Iron Age artifacts.</p><br>
<h2>Zambia and UNESCO significance</h2><br>
<p>In 1964, the archaeological site was gazetted as a national monument by Zambias National Heritage Conservation Commission. It has since been protected under Zambias 1989 National Heritage Conservation Act.</p><br>
<p>In 2009, Kalambo Falls was included on UNESCO list of tentative World Heritage Sites. Justifications for the inclusion are that the Kalambo Falls are the 2nd highest waterfalls in Africa, the evidence of one of the longest examples of human occupation in sub-Saharan Africa, and the collected stone tools are from one of the world&#39;s earliest tool industries, the Acheulean.</p><br>
<p>As of today, Kalambo Falls remains on the tentative list for recognition as a protected World Heritage site.</p><br>
<h2>Contemporary ecology</h2><br>
<p>Today, both human and animal populations traverse the Kalambo Falls area, which has a basin above the falls that attracts many of both populations as an important stopping place. On the Zambian border, the area is now a game preserve for the protection of many animals. The falls&#39; cliff-face ledges provide nesting places and breeding sites for a marabou stork colony.</p><br>
<p>Onondaga Lake is a lake in Central New York located northwest of Syracuse, New York. The southeastern end of the lake and the southwestern shore abut industrial areas and expressways; the northeastern shore and northwestern end border a series of parks and museums.</p><br>
<p>Although it is near the Finger Lakes region, it is not traditionally counted as one of the Finger Lakes. Onondaga Lake is a dimictic lake, meaning that the lake water completely mixes from top to bottom twice a year. The lake is 4.6 miles long and 1 mile wide making a surface area of 4.6 square miles. Its drainage basin has a surface area of 642 square kilometers, encompassing Syracuse, Onondaga County except the eastern and northern edges, the southeastern corner of Cayuga County and the Onondaga Nation Territory, and supports approximately 450,000 people.</p><br>
<p>Onondaga Lake has two natural tributaries that contribute approximately 70% of the total water flow to the lake. These tributaries are: Ninemile Creek and Onondaga Creek. The Metropolitan Syracuse Wastewater Treatment Plant (METRO) contributes 20% of the annual flow. No other lake in the United States receives as much of its inflow as treated wastewater. The other tributaries, which include Ley Creek, Bloody Brook, Harbor Brook, Sawmill Creek, Tributary 5A, and East Flume, contribute the remaining 10% of water flow into the lake. and discharges into Seneca River which combines with the Oneida River to form the Oswego River, and ultimately ends up in Lake Ontario.</p><br>
<p>The lake is considered sacred within the indigenous territory of the Onondaga Nation. The Onondaga people had control of the lake taken from them by New York State following the American Revolutionary War. During the late 19th century, European-Americans built many resorts along the lake&#39;s shoreline, as it was a destination of great beauty. The Onondaga Nation still has religious and cultural on the Shores of the Lake today.</p><br>
<p>With the industrialization of the region, much of the lake&#39;s shoreline was developed; domestic and industrial waste, due to industry and urbanization, led to the severe degradation of the lake. Unsafe levels of pollution led to the banning of ice harvesting as early as 1901. In 1940, swimming was banned, and in 1970 fishing was banned due to mercury contamination. Mercury pollution is still a problem for the lake today. Despite the passage of the Clean Water Act in 1973 and the closing of the major industrial polluter in 1986, Onondaga Lake is still one of the most polluted lakes in the United States. Several initiatives, including a 15-year multi-stage program currently under way, have been recently undertaken to clean up the lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Indigenous cultures</h3><br>
<p>Onondaga Lake is traditionally regarded as the birthplace of the Haudenosaunee, also known as the Iroquois Confederacy. The Great Peacemaker brought together the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca nations on the shores of the lake. These warring nations accepted the Great Peacemaker&#39;s message of peace, laid down their weapons, and formed the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Since then, the lake has become a sacred place.</p><br>
<p>The Onondaga Nations 21st-century "Vision for a Clean Onondaga Lake" states that the waters, plants, fish, shore birds, and animals of the lake are an intrinsic part of the peoples existence. The Onondaga view the restoration of the lake as a personal responsibility and are working to make sure that the lake is clean enough so that people may again drink its water, eat its fish, and swim in it.</p><br>
<h3>Early European settlement</h3><br>
<p>Europeans began to learn about salt springs in the area in 1654, when the Onondagas revealed their presence to French explorers. Jesuit missionaries visiting the Syracuse region in the same time period were the first to report on salty brine springs around the southern end of what they called "Salt Lake," known today as Onondaga Lake. The brine springs were reported to have extended around much of the lake for a distance of nearly 9 miles. They extended from the present-day towns of Salina through Geddes and from Liverpool to near the mouth of Ninemile Creek. European settlers, mostly trappers and traders, followed the Jesuit missionaries and French explorers into the Syracuse area during the 17th and 18th centuries. After the French and Indian War, British traders replaced the French, but encounters were limited.</p><br>
<p>British-American colonists began salt production in the area in the late 18th century. Following the victory of the United States in the American Revolutionary War, it made the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1788 with the Six Nations of the Iroquois. Among its provisions was the transfer of the lands around the lake from the Onondaga Nation to local salt producers on the condition that the salt would be produced for the common use of everyone. By 1822, due to a high incidence of malaria, the lake&#39;s water level was lowered after its outlet to the Seneca River was dredged. The low-lying swampy area, located in what is now the northern end of downtown Syracuse, was drained.</p><br>
<p>The completion of the Erie Canal through New York state in the mid 1820s and the commercial production of salt brought an increase in settlement of the area. The lake&#39;s western shore became increasingly industrialized as the nineteenth century progressed.</p><br>
<p>Onondaga Lake also became a popular resort area. By the late 19th century, its shoreline was dotted with hotels, restaurants, and amusement parks. One of the more popular resort areas, named the Iron Pier, was located near the present site of the Destiny USA at the south end of the lake. The pier featured a variety of recreational activities in a resort pavilion. In addition, steamboat services based at the pier transported tourists to other resorts around the lake. The lake initially supported a cold-water fishery, but due to industrialization, by 1890 the cold-water fishery was lost.</p><br>
<h3>Industry</h3><br>
<p>The systematic production of salt began in 1797, when the New York State Legislature designated a one-mile-wide strip of land around the northern half of the lake as the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. Between 1797 and 1917, the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation produced more than 11.5 million tons of finished salt.</p><br>
<p>Salt brine and limestone were the key raw materials for the production of soda ash, used to make the industrial products of glass, chemicals, detergent, and paper. The abundance of salt brine and limestone in Onondaga Lakes watershed area attributed greatly for the industrialization along the lakes shoreline. Beginning in 1838, New York State authorized the drilling of deep wells at several locations around the lake. The wells were intended to locate the source of the brine, but no source was located.</p><br>
<p>The Solvay Process company, incorporated in 1881, began drilling deep test holes in the area south of Syracuse in 1883. The company&#39;s main product was soda ash, integral to several industries. Eventually Solvay found halite deposits at a depth of 1,216 feet below land surface in the southern end of Tully Valley. From 1890 to 1986, more than 120 wells were drilled into four halite beds on the east and west flanks of the valley. Soda ash production began in 1884. The company was producing about 20 tons of soda ash per day, dumping most of its waste material directly into Onondaga Lake. Eventually wastebeds were built along the southwest perimeter of the lake to contain the by-products of soda ash production. In 1907, the New York State Attorney General threatened the Solvay Process Company with legal action over the direct discharge of Solvay waste material into the lake.</p><br>
<p>As Syracuse’s population began to grow in the 20th century, a surplus of pollution hit the lake hard. This lake was so close to the city that the effects of people’s sewage, exhaust fumes, and dumping of unnecessary products all caused the lake to decline in popularity, fishing, and even swimming.</p><br>
<p>In 1920, the Solvay Process Company merged with four other chemical companies, forming Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation. In 1950 it began the production of chlorine by mercury cell in 1950. Mercury-contaminated waste was also dumped directly into Onondaga Lake. Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation became Allied Chemical Corporation in 1958. Its continued practice of allowing mercury into the lake led to the federal and state governments banning fishing in 1970, due to mercury contamination of the fish. The US Attorney General sued Allied Chemical to halt the dumping of mercury into the lake. It is estimated that Allied Chemical was dumping approximately 25 pounds of mercury into Onondaga Lake per day. In 1981 Allied Chemical Corporation become Allied Corporation; in 1985 it changed its name to Allied-Signal, Inc. when it merged with the Signal companies. The company announced that it would close its operations in Syracuse because of changes in environmental laws, and in 1986 began dismantling its facility.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, New York State filed a lawsuit against Allied-Signal, Inc. for its part in contamination of Onondaga Lake. New York State and Allied-Signal, Inc. signed an interim Consent Decree detailing the elements of a Remedial Investigation and Feasibility Study to be undertaken of the lake. In compliance with the Consent Decree, the study was conducted by Allied-Signal, Inc. which became Honeywell, Inc. in 1999.</p><br>
<p>Non-salt-producing companies also became established along the Onondaga Creek valley from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century. Many of these companies drilled wells into the underlying sand to obtain water for cooling purposes. They were protecting dairy products and beer, storing perishable goods, and regulating temperature in office and storage buildings by such water use. Once used, the water was disposed of in nearby streams that drained to Onondaga Lake. This practice increased the salinity of the surface-water system.</p><br>
<h2>Parks & recreation</h2><br>
<h3>Parks</h3><br>
<p>The abandoned Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation became an industrial dumping ground in the early 20th century. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt turned the State land over to Onondaga County. Funding from the Work relief program supported the labor to enable the county to convert the area into Long Branch Park in the early 1930s.</p><br>
<p>By September 24, 1933, several local organizations formed in connection with the civic and recreational activities of the Syracuse Associated Leisure Time plan favored the Onondaga Lake West Shore Parkwayproject. The plan called for the development of an automobile parkway along the lake between the State Fair grounds entrance area and Long Branch Park. It was projected as another work relief construction program. The parkway used the former Lakeshore Railway right-of-way and brought the "virtual completion of the round-the-lake boulevard." The cost of the parkway was estimated at $330,000.</p><br>
<h4>Long Branch Park</h4><br>
<p>Long Branch Park is a public park in Onondaga County, New York, located in the town of Liverpool at 3813 Long Branch Road near NYS Route 370 and John Glenn Boulevard. The park is located on the northern shore of Onondaga Lake near Onondaga Lake Park, but it has no formal relation to it and is operate separately.</p><br>
<p>Founded in the late 19th century by Ben and George Maurer, Long Branch Park was originally an amusement park, containing boxing arenas, a trolley, and Carousel #18. The latter was relocated to Syracuse&#39;s largest mall, Destiny USA, as the amusement park closed in 1938.</p><br>
<p>The park is located at the northern shore of Onondaga Lake Park. It is made up of three reserved shelters; Riverview, Glen and Knoll as well as a 100 ft sledding hill. Major annual events held here include the Great American Antiquefest and the Scottish Games.</p><br>
<h4>Onondaga Lake Park</h4><br>
<p>Onondaga Lake Park is another county park. It hugs the eastern shore of the lake and has its offices at 6790 Onondaga Lake Trail in Liverpool. The park offers seven miles of shoreline, with a variety of areas for family picnics, including developed areas in Willow Bay and Cold Springs. The park has paved, vehicle-free trails for bikes and walkers. It offers free outdoor wireless internet in the Griffin Visitor Center area.</p><br>
<h4>Onondaga Lake Park Marina</h4><br>
<p>The Onondaga Lake Park Marina is located on Onondaga Lake Parkway in Liverpool.</p><br>
<h4>Wegmans Good Dog Park</h4><br>
<p>The Wegmans Good Dog Park was the first of its kind in Central New York and is located in theCold Springs Mud Lock section of Onondaga Lake Park. It is open from sunrise to sunset, seven days a week year round.</p><br>
<p>Dogs are allowed to exercise without leashes in a 40,000 ft&sup2; fenced in area which includes an exercise area with tunnels, jumps and bridges complete with red fire hydrants.</p><br>
<p>Dog etiquette guidelines and park rules have been established by the Onondaga County Parks Department and are strictly enforced. Pets must be under control at all times and owners must be able to show proof of vaccination.</p><br>
<p>Entrance to the park is located at 49 Cold Springs Trail in Liverpooloff NYS Route 370. Suggested donation of $1 per person at the main gate. The park is maintained with private donations.</p><br>
<h3>Museums</h3><br>
<h4>Mission of Sainte Marie</h4><br>
<p>The Old French Fort at the Mission of Sainte Marie was the site of an early attempt by French Jesuits and colonists to establish a base in Central New York. In the 1930s, the remains of the original fort were replaced with what was claimed to be a "replica" or reconstruction of the site. Research since then has revealed that it was a poor imitation.</p><br>
<p>During the 1980s, a decision was made to replace the structure with a historically accurate reconstruction. In addition, a visitor&#39;s center was built. This is used for the display of archeological artifacts recovered from the area, in a more accurate and "hands on" living museum.</p><br>
<p>As of January 1, 2013 the Onondaga Historical Association (OHA) took over management of the Onondaga County facility known as "Sainte Marie among the Iroquois" located on the eastern shore of Onondaga Lake. The site is currently planning to repurpose the facility into a Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Heritage Center named Skä•noñh Center – Great Law of Peace Center. Skä•noñh, is an Onondaga welcoming greeting meaning Peace and Wellness. For more information, visit www.skanonhcenter.org.</p><br>
<h4>Salt Museum</h4><br>
<p>The Salt Museum was built around a still-standing boiling block chimney. It opened in 1933 during the Great Depression.</p><br>
<h3>Events</h3><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<h3>Sewage wastewater</h3><br>
<p>One major source of pollution for Onondaga Lake is sewage wastewater. For years, Syracuse dumped human waste into the lake with little or no treatment. Before European settlement and the growth of a large population in the area, the lake was oligo-mesothropic, meaning that it contained low levels of aquatic plant blooms.</p><br>
<p>But, the high levels of ammonia and phosphorus due to the dumping of sewage wastewater have led to excessive algae growth in the lake. The low oxygen levels lead to the choking out of fish and plants, especially in the deeper areas of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Combined sewer overflow (CSO) also contributes pollution. In some areas of Syracuse, sewers carry both sanitary sewage and stormwater. During dry weather, these sewers carry all the sanitary sewage to Metro for treatment; however, during times of heavy rain or melting snow, the amount of water is greater than the capacity of the sewers. They overflow and discharge a combination of runoff and sanitary sewage into Onondaga Creek and Harbor Brook. Through these tributaries, the CSO eventually reaches Onondaga Lake. CSO has been generating concerns about bacteria. In the 1960s, Syracuse had ninety points where CSO could reach Onondaga Creek, Harbor Brook, or Ley Creek.</p><br>
<h3>Chemical pollution</h3><br>
<p>The Allied Chemical Corporation has contributed greatly to the chemical pollution of Onondaga Lake. The surface water has been found to be contaminated with mercury whereas the sediments are contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, creosotes, heavy metals (lead, cobalt, and mercury), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), chlorinated benzenes, and BTEX compounds (benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene, xylene). In Onondaga Lake the chlorinated benzenes are located in the southwest portion, in the form of a dense oily liquid that has settled into the sediments. These chemicals were intentionally dumped into the lake or unintentionally seeped in from upland toxic waste sites or from the Solvay wastebeds located at the southwest end of Onondaga Lake. The wastebeds continue to leak toxins into the lake today. Approximately 6 million pounds of salty wastes made up of chloride, sodium, and calcium were dumped daily into the lake before Allied Chemical closed in 1986.</p><br>
<p>Mercury contamination has been a major pollution issue. Between 1946 and 1970, 165,000 pounds of mercury was dumped into Onondaga Lake by Allied Chemical and Dye Corporation. A fishing ban had been imposed in 1970 due to mercury contamination.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, the New York State Department of Health (NYSDOH) lifted the advisory on eating bass, white perch, and catfish from Onondaga Lake. The advisory against eating walleye remained in effect; and women of childbearing age, infants, and children under the age of 15 were advised against eating any of the fish from the lake. In 2007, the NYSDOH updated its advisory, prohibiting the consumption of largemouth and smallmouth bass over 15-inches-long. No walleye, carp, channel catfish, and white perch of any size should be consumed. The Department of Health advises up to four meals per month of brown bullhead and pumpkinseed, and up to one meal per month of any species not listed.</p><br>
<h3>Mudboils</h3><br>
<p>Approximately 18 miles south of Syracuse, the Tully Valley has unique hydro-geological features called mudboils. These mudboils are the cause of the excessive sedimentation of Onondaga Lake. The sediment enters Onondaga Creek, which flows north into the lake. Sediment loading is a problem because it degrades water quality, decreases water clarity, and reduces habitat for aquatic insects, fish spawning, and plants.</p><br>
<h3>Legal action & cleanup efforts</h3><br>
<h4>Sewage pollution cleanup</h4><br>
<p>The first steps taken to control sewage pollution occurred in 1907 with the creation of the Syracuse Interceptor Sewage Board. It served to address sewage-related problems in Onondaga Creek and Harbor Brook. In 1960, Onondaga County established a sewer district and built the Metropolitan Sewage Treatment Plant ("Metro") on the south shore of the lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, Atlantic States Legal Foundation (ASLF), a Syracuse-based organization providing legal and technical assistance to citizens and organizations dealing with environmental problems, filed a lawsuit against Onondaga County alleging that Metro and the combined sewer overflow (CSO) discharges were violating federal water pollution standards established under the Clean Water Act of 1972. The state of New York joined as a plaintiff with allegations that Onondaga County had also violated the New York State Environmental Conservation Law.</p><br>
<p>In 1990, the USA Congress created the Onondaga Lake Management Conference (Public Law 101-596, section 401). It ordered the group to develop a comprehensive revitalization, conservation, and management plan for Onondaga Lake that recommends priority corrective actions and compliance schedules for its cleanup. The Conference also called for coordination of implementing the plan. The largest responsibility of the Onondaga Lake Management Conference was the completion of the Onondaga Lake Management Plan.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, New York State and ASLF reached an agreement, the Onondaga Lake Amended Consent Judgement (ACJ), on municipal wastewater collection and treatment improvements. The ACJ called for a schedule to attain compliance with the Clean Water Act. The ACJ is a multi-year program designed to improve the water quality of Onondaga Lake while achieving full compliance with state and federal water quality regulations by December 1, 2012. ACJ projects are divided into three main categories: wastewater treatment, collection system, and lake and tributary monitoring. In January 1998, a federal judge approved the ACJ and on September 1999, the Onondaga Lake Management Conference approved and endorsed the Amended Consent Judgment (ACJ). It incorporated the ACJ into its 1993 Onondaga Lake Management Plan entitled, A Plan of Action.</p><br>
<p>The final stage for ammonia discharge improvements occurred in 2004. The biological aerated filter (BAF) system allows for year-round nitrification of wastewater. In 2004, Metro&#39;s annual ammonia discharge was reduced to 152 metric tons and by 2005, the annual discharge fell to 21 metric tons. The ACJ also led to the creation of an ambient monitoring program (AMP) to track the effectiveness of the improvements made to the wastewater collection and treatment infrastructure. The AMP is designed to identify sources of materials to the lake, evaluate in-lake water quality conditions, and examine the interactions between Onondaga Lake and Seneca River. Since 2007, Onondaga Lake has been in full compliance with the ambient water quality standards for ammonia. It was officially de-listed for that particular parameter in the State’s 2008 list of impaired bodies of water.</p><br>
<p>The ACJ achieved other successes. Between 1993 and 2006, the phosphorus discharges from Metro were decreased by 86%. In regards to contamination via CSOs, the ACJ requires that by 2018 the county eliminate or capture for treatment 95% of the CSO volume generated during heavy rain and snow melt.</p><br>
<h4>Chemical pollution cleanup</h4><br>
<p>In 1989 the State of New York filed a lawsuit against Allied-Signal, Inc. The lawsuit sought to compel the company to clean up the hazardous wastes that it and its predecessors had dumped into and around the lake. In 2005, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Record of Decision that outlined the remediation plans of Onondaga Lake. The Federal Court approved a Consent Decree in 2007, obliging Honeywell International, Inc. to implement the NYSDEC/EPA cleanup plan for the contaminated sediments in the bottom of the lake. Honeywell signed the Consent Decree that same year and has started to undertake the Remedial Design and Remedial Action for the Onondaga Lake Bottom Site.</p><br>
<p>The cleanup plan calls for the dredging of up to 2.65 million cubic yards of contaminated sediments to a depth that will allow for a cap to be built without losing any lake surface area. The sediments will be hydraulically dredged from the bottom of the lake and piped to a sediment consolidation area in Camillus, New York. Dredging was expected to begin in 2012. The cap that the plan calls for would cover 580 acres of lake-bottom. The plan also calls for the installation of a barrier wall made of steel on the southwest corner of the lake. In 2008, Honeywell began second-phase construction on this barrier wall. The estimated cost of the cleanup plan is $451 million; an estimated $414 million in order to construct the remedy, followed by an annual maintenance cost of $3 million.</p><br>
<p>As part of the scope of the cleanup project, Honeywell has funded and operates the Onondaga Lake Visitors Center, which opened in 2012. The center, located on land owned by the New York State Department of Transportation adjacent to Honeywell&#39;s cleanup headquarters on the southwestern shore, presents information about the ongoing cleanup.</p><br>
<p>The Onondaga Nation is not content with the Remedial Action plan for the Onondaga Lake Bottom Site. Their website states that the dredging plan will not include the additional 8 million cubic yards that the NYSDEC found to be contaminated. They do not believe that isolation caps are a permanent, reliable form of containment. The caps will not cover the entirety of the lake-bottom and they will eventually fail. Onondaga Nation has said that New York State goals do not include making the lake swimmable or fishable, which are criteria included in the Clean Water Act. The total estimated plan, according to Onondaga Nation, of a thorough cleanup would cost $2.16 billion.</p><br>
<h4>Sedimentation control</h4><br>
<p>Since 1992, the Onondaga Lake Partnership has supported the efforts of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in the following remedial activities: the diversion of surface water away from the mudboils, the installation of a dam on the stream that flows from the mudboils area, and the drilling of wells to reduce the pressure around the mudboils (21). The installation of several depressurization wells has led to dramatic decreases in sediment loading; an average of 30 tons per day was reduced to 1 ton per day.</p><br>
<h2>Onondaga land rights claim</h2><br>
<p>The lake is also subject of a land right action filed on March 11, 2005 by the Onondaga Nation. The Onondaga Nation is seeking the protection and conservation of the natural resources within and affecting the Nation&#39;s land, and the security of Onondaga rights to hunt, fish, and gather resources for subsistence and cultural needs. According to Sid Hill, the Tadodaho of the Iroquois, the Onondaga people want the water, land, and air returned to its condition prior to being illegally taken by New York State in the 18th and 19th centuries. Hill considers the degraded state of Onondaga Lake as evidence that neither New York State nor federal authorities can adequately care for the land and water resources. The land rights action was dismissed by a federal judge on September 22, 2010.</p><br>
<h3>Fishing improvements</h3><br>
<p>Dating back to the 1600s, Onondaga Lake has always shown reports of a cold-water system supporting certain types of fish. Around the late 1800s, degradation occurred and the fish that once thrived in the lake, such as the American eel, Atlantic Salmon and Whitefish declined. The decrease in population was resulting from the increase in temperatures because of severe pollution and human activities taking place. Even though the species are starting to gain popularity in this lake once again, the evidence shows that pollution had a direct impact on the fish that once inhabited this environment.</p><br>
<p>A survey in 1928 showed the lake was habitat for only ten remaining species. After clean-up and restoration efforts, researchers found a total of 54 species of fish captured in the lake between 1990 and 1999. The quality of sport fishing for large and small-mouth bass has gained national acclaim.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, Brown Trout were listed among Onondaga Lake&#39;s Common Species, and Lake Sturgeon, stocked in nearby Oneida Lake, had returned. In addition, in recent years, areas around the lake has become an overwintering spot for bald eagles, a demonstration that the fishing is good.</p><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin, also simply known as Ubin, is an island situated in the north east of Singapore, to the west of Pulau Tekong. Granite quarrying supported a few thousand settlers on Pulau Ubin in the 1960s, but only about a hundred villagers live there today. It is one of the last rural areas to be found in Singapore, with an abundance of natural flora and fauna. The island forms part of the Ubin–Khatib Important Bird Area , identified as such by BirdLife International because it supports significant numbers of visiting and resident birds, some of which are threatened.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Pulau Ubin literally means "Granite Island" in Malay, which explains the many abandoned granite quarries there. Pulau means "island", and Ubin is said to be a Javanese term for "squared stone". To the Malays, the island is also known as Pulau Batu Ubin, or "Granite Stone Island". The rocks on the island were used to make floor tiles in the past and were called Jubin, which was then shortened to Ubin.</p><br>
<p>The island is known as tsioh sua in the Taiwanese Romanization of Hokkien, which means "stone hill". The highest point is Bukit Puaka (Puaka Hill) at a height of 75 m.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>Legend has it that Pulau Ubin was formed when three animals from Singapore (a frog, a pig and an elephant) challenged each other to a race to reach the shores of Johor. The animals that failed would turn to stone. All three came across many difficulties and were unable to reach the shores of Johor. Therefore, the elephant and pig together turned into Pulau Ubin whilst the frog became Pulau Sekudu or Frog Island.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin first appeared on map in an 1828 sketch of the Island of Singapore as Pulo Obin and in Franklin and Jackson&#39;s map as Po. Ubin.</p><br>
<h3>Quarries</h3><br>
<p>Since the British founding of Singapore, the island has been known for its granite. The numerous granite quarries on the island supply the local construction industry. The granite outcrops are particularly spectacular from the sea because their grooves and fluted sides create furrows and ridges on each granite rock slab. These features are captured in John Turnbull Thomson&#39;s 1850 painting &mdash; Grooved stones on Pulo Ubin near Singapore.</p><br>
<p>The granite from Pulau Ubin was used in the construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse. Tongkangs ferried the huge rock blocks (30 by 20 feet) from the island to Pedra Branca, the site of the lighthouse, in 1850 and 1851.</p><br>
<p>Later, the granite was also used to build the Singapore-Johor Causeway. Most of the quarries are not in operation today and are being slowly recolonised by vegetation or filled with water. Apart from quarrying, farming and fishing were the principal occupations of the inhabitants of the island in the past. It is also called Selat Tebrau (tebrau is a kind of large fish).</p><br>
<p>In the 1970s as the granite quarries closed down and jobs dwindled, residents began leaving.</p><br>
<h3>Human settlement</h3><br>
<p>In the 1880s, a number of Malays led by Endut Senin, from the Kallang River were said to have moved to the island that began the thriving Malay community on the island.</p><br>
<p>Many of the former kampongs on Pulau Ubin were either named after the first person who settled in the kampong or by some feature in the area. Kampong Leman was named by Leman; Kampong Cik Jawa by a Singaporean named Jawa; and Kampong Jelutong from people from Changi and from its jelutong trees.</p><br>
<p>During the 1950s and 1970s, there were 2,000 people living on the island and the Bin Kiang School was established in 1952 for the increasing number of children, from money donated by the Chinese resident. Lessons prior to this were conducted on the village wayang stage. With a student population that once numbered 400, enrolment fell as the Singapore mainland developed. The school closed in 1985, and was demolished on 2 April 2000. There was also a private Malay school around 1956 at Kampung Melayu, which closed in the late 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin was found to be suitable for the construction of several campsites. Outward Bound Singapore (OBS) was established in 1967 at Pulau Ubin, by Dr Goh Keng Swee, while the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) opened its 25-hectare site camp located between Kampung Bahru and Kampung Noordin. The camp is called Camp Resilience where Secondary 2 and 3 NPCC cadets have a 3-day 2 night stay for training. Secondary 2 NPCC cadets go to Adventure Training Camp (ATC) while Secondary 3 NPCC cadets go to Survival Training Camp (STC). lt was opened officially on 10 August 2004.</p><br>
<p>On 3 June 2005, the Singapore Government ordered that all the farmers rearing poultry on the island were to ship them to mainland Singapore and rear them in government-approved farms by 17 June 2005, in the wake of the avian influenza. In exchange, the local inhabitants were offered HDB government housing packages, although they could choose to live on the island.</p><br>
<p>As of today, there are only a few people living on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Current situation</h2><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin is one of the last areas in Singapore that has been preserved from urban development, concrete buildings and tarmac roads.</p><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin&#39;s wooden house villages and wooden jetties, relaxed inhabitants, rich and preserved wildlife, abandoned quarries and plantations, and untouched nature make it the last witness of the old kampong Singapore that existed before modern industrial times and large-scale urban development.</p><br>
<h2>Ecological projects</h2><br>
<h3>Hornbill Conservation Project</h3><br>
<p>The National Biodiversity Centre, in partnership with Wildlife Reserves Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, and researchers Marc Cremades and Ng Soon Chye, implemented the Hornbill Conservation Project to aid in the breeding and recovery of the Oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris) which had previously became extinct in Singapore but has since started to re-establish itself in places like Pulau Ubin and Changi.</p><br>
<p>Hornbills require tree cavities to nest in. However, tree cavities of sufficient size to accommodate the female hornbill and her young are not common in Singapore. The implementation of artificial nest boxes at Pulau Ubin and Changi have been successful and video cameras are even installed within the nest boxes to provide a better understanding of the behavioural and feeding patterns of these birds.</p><br>
<h3>Seahorse Monitoring Project</h3><br>
<p>Since May 2009, the National Biodiversity Centre, together with volunteers from National Parks Board and nature groups such as Wild Singapore and TeamSeaGrass, initiated a project to monitor identified populations of seahorse (Hippocampus kuda) and pipefish (Syngnathoides biaculeatus) in several locations including Pulau Ubin for conservation management purposes. The data gathered will help to estimate the population size, growth rate of individuals and track their movements in their natural habitats.</p><br>
<h2>Local tourism</h2><br>
<p>Although the island attracted attention for development and planning only in recent years, Singaporean visitors have been visiting Pulau Ubin for summer camps and outdoor activities for many years.</p><br>
<p>With growing attention and interest in nature, visitors to Pulau Ubin has increased over the years.</p><br>
<p>One of the current popular tourist attractions on the island is Chek Jawa. A previous coral reef 5000 years ago, Chek Jawa can be said to be virtually unspoilt, with a variety of marine wildlife comparable to other islands, such as sea hares, sea squirts, octopuses, starfishes, sand dollars, fishes, sponges, cuttlefishes and nudibranches.</p><br>
<p>A boardwalk runs through the mangrove, allowing visitors to observe the plant and marine life at close range. During low tide, a limited number of people are allowed to walk on the tidal flats.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Visitors may travel to Pulau Ubin from the main island of Singapore via a 10-minute bumboat ride from the Changi Point Ferry Terminal (previously known as the Changi Village jetty). In 2008 the one-way ticket price was increased from S$2.00 to S$2.50 per passenger. It was further increased to S$3.00 from 7 September 2015 onwards. Every bumboat can carry 12 passengers and the captain will wait till his boat has reached the maximum capacity. People who do not want to wait can pay S$36.00 for the whole bumboat and leave without waiting.</p><br>
<p>The rental price for bicycles range anywhere from S$2.00 to S$20.00 (for the entire day) depending on the condition of the bike, number of gears etc.</p><br>
<h2>Mountain biking</h2><br>
<p>Pulau Ubin is home to one of Singapore&#39;s mountain bike trails, Ketam Mountain Bike Park which was built in 2007. The trail is approximately 8 kilometers long and features a wide range of terrain ranging from open meadows to thick jungle. There are numerous steep but short climbs and descents. The trail is well-marked with signs indicating the difficulty level of each section.</p><br>
<p>The vast majority of the mountain bikers that ride this trail bring their own bike, although the rental bikes on the island can also be used.</p><br>
<p>Besides adventurous mountain biking, Pulau Ubin has a lot to offer to recreational mountain bikers with a wide selection of bikes to that can be rented upon arrival. By cruising around the island one can stop by beautiful lakes and other natural spots. It is a great break away from the big and busy city of Singapore.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1989, TCS (now renamed Mediacorp), filmed a television drama named Good Morning, Sir. The drama was set in Post-World War 2 in the 1950s where a woman from the Main Island of Singapore went there to be a Teacher.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, MediaCorp filmed a Channel 8 television drama called My Teacher, My Friend about the lives of students in the primary school that used to exist on Pulau Ubin.</p><br>
<p>In 2006, Mediacorp broadcast a Kids Central (now Okto) television drama series titled Ubin Boy. The plot revolved around two main characters, Steven (a mainland citizen) and his cousin Ah Boy living in Pulau Ubin.</p><br>
<p>In the Danny Wallace book Yes Man, Danny visits Pulau Ubin after it is suggested to him (and to which he must agree) after he visits Singapore. He is told the island is a paradise and must visit it by a local taxi driver.</p><br>
<p>The Amazing Race 25 visited this island when the teams arrived in Singapore.</p><br>
<p>MediaCorp filmed a Channel 8 television drama called Hand In Hand in 2015 about four siblings in search of a suspicious figure on Pulau Ubin who looks like their father.</p><br>
<p>Eel Island</p><br>
<p>Otsego Lake is a 4,046 acre lake located in Otsego County, New York and is the source of the Susquehanna River. The Village of Cooperstown is located at the lakes southern end. Glimmerglass State Park is located on the lakes northeastern shore, and includes Hyde Hall, a large mansion constructed in 1817 that overlooks the lake. Glimmerglass Opera is located on the western shore.</p><br>
<p>The name Otsego is from a Mohawk or Oneida word meaning "place of the rock", referring to the large boulder near the lake&#39;s outlet, today known as "Council Rock".</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Otsego Lake is 7.8 mi long with a surface area of 4,046 acre. Its average depth is 82 ft, with a maximum depth of 167 ft. Portions of the lake are within the towns of Springfield, Middlefield and Otsego.</p><br>
<p>It is geologically related to the Finger Lakes but is not counted among them. One difference is that Otsego Lake is situated at a higher elevation (1,191 ft) than the Finger Lakes (approximately 400 ft).</p><br>
<h3>Council Rock</h3><br>
<p>Located near the shore of Otsego Lake in Cooperstown is Council Rock, a large boulder whose top is above the water&#39;s surface and can be seen from shore. At low water, the oval rock rises approximately 4.5 ft above the water, and is about 9 ft long by 6 ft wide. It is believed to have been a meeting place for Native Americans prior to the American Revolutionary War.</p><br>
<p>A small parcel of land near Council Rock was presented to the Village of Cooperstown in 1957, on the condition that it remain open to the public as a park. The park, today known as Council Rock Park, also includes a set of concrete steps leading to a lake-level terrace that was built in 1937.</p><br>
<h3>Sunken Islands</h3><br>
<p>Sunken Island is a submerged sandy plot located near the western shore of Otsego Lake, approximately 6 mi north from Cooperstown. It is the supposed remains of an island described in the writings of James Fenimore Cooper upon which a structure once stood. Today Sunken Island is several feet below the surface of the lake and is marked with 4 buoys to prevent boats from running aground.</p><br>
<p>Eel Island is a submerged island (sunken) located approximately 7 mi north of Cooperstown.</p><br>
<h3>Three Mile Point</h3><br>
<p>Three Mile Point is a public swimming beach located three miles from Cooperstown along the western shore of Otsego Lake accessible via state highway 80. It is open during the summer and offers changing rooms, a picnic area, and a pavilion.</p><br>
<h3>Fairy Springs</h3><br>
<p>Fairy Springs is a public swimming area located one mile from Cooperstown along the eastern shore of Otsego lake accessible via county road 31. It is open May through September and offers changing rooms, a picnic area, and a pavilion.</p><br>
<h2>Appearances in literature</h2><br>
<p>The lake was known to James Fenimore Cooper as Glimmerglass and was a principal feature in his novels The Pioneers and The Deerslayer, in which local landmarks such as Council Rock and Sunken Island are mentioned.</p><br>
<p>Otsego Lake is also referenced in The Secret of Mirror Bay, a novel in the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series.</p><br>
<p>Western Port, commonly but unofficially known as Western Port Bay, is a large tidal bay in southern Victoria, Australia, opening into Bass Strait. It is the second largest bay in the state. Geographically, it is dominated by the two large islands; French Island and Phillip Island. Contrary to its name, it lies to the east of the larger Port Phillip, and is separated from it by the Mornington Peninsula. It is visited by Australian fur seals, whales and dolphins, as well as many migratory waders and seabirds. It is listed under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international significance.</p><br>
<p>The area around the bay and the two main islands were originally part of the Boonwurrung nations territory prior to European settlement. Western Port was first seen by Europeans in 1798 when an exploration crew in a whaleboat led by George Bass, journeyed south from Sydney to explore Australias south eastern coastline. Due in most part to a lack of food, the expedition was halted, spending two weeks in Western Port before returning to Sydney. As it was the most westerly charted point at the time, it was named Western Port; however, it actually lies in the eastern half of Victoria and to the east of the larger Port Phillip and Greater Melbourne.</p><br>
<p>The bay is home to the three Marine National Parks&mdash;French Island, Churchill Island and Yaringa, while the land adjacent to the north is largely used for farming purposes including cattle and wineries. Today the bay is mostly used for recreation; however, there is also a military base (HMAS Cerberus), shipping and oil production facilities adjoining the bay. Western Port is around one hour from Melbourne by car and a small number of holiday villages with sandy swimming beaches lie on its shores.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Prior to European settlement, the Bunurong people lived around Western Port living off shellfish, mutton birds and plant life. The bay was first explored by Europeans in 1797, when George Bass received permission from Governor Hunter in Sydney to sail a whaleboat along the unexplored section of coast south of Botany Bay. On such a rough stretch of water, Bass could not get more than halfway through the strait now known as Bass Strait. This voyage led to the recording of Western Port, so named because of its situation relative to every other known harbour on the coast at that time (the area from Point Hicks to Cape Howe), even though it lies to the east of Port Phillip and the city of Melbourne.</p><br>
<h2>Attempted colonisation</h2><br>
<p>In the year 1826 it was reported that the French had resolved to found a settlement at some Australian harbor - probably King George&#39;s Sound or Western Port. The British Government at once sent instructions to Sydney for Governor Darling to immediately take possession of these places. As a result, Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, and Lieutenant Burchell were sent in (Captain Wetherall) and the brigs Dragon and Amity, with orders to proceed to Western Port, on 18 November 1826. They took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. The expedition landed at Settlement Point, on the eastern side of the bay near present-day Corinella, which was the headquarters until the abandonment of Western Port at the instance of Governor Darling about twelve months afterwards, as unfit for civilisation,</p><br>
<p>Samuel Anderson established the third permanent European settlement in Victoria, after Portland and Melbourne, at Bass in 1835.</p><br>
<p>It was only after the end of World War II that serious consideration was given to the development of the port, and its flat shores north of Stony and Crib Points have become a centre for heavy industry.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Formerly a major river drainage system, it was inundated together with Port Phillip by the rising sea in the Holocene period; the Western Port sunkland now forms an extensive tidal bay. The waters of Western Port cover an area of 680 km² of which 270 km² are exposed as mud flats at low tide. The topography of Western Port is dominated by two large islands: French Island and Phillip Island. The coastline, including that of the islands, is some 263 km. The bay and its islands are criss-crossed by seven seismically active fault lines and experiences numerous minor earthquakes every year.</p><br>
<p>In the northern reaches, several rivers and creeks drain into the bay and flow through extensive mangroves, mudflats and sand banks before being channelled either side of French Island and into the open water in the southern reaches around Phillip Island. Several natural river paths and channels provide access for boats to the northern reaches; however, this is highly dependent on the tides and local knowledge is essential. Some of the major tributaries of Western Port are Bunyip River, Lang Lang River, Bass River, Cardinia Creek, Redbill Creek, Mosquito Creek, Brella Creek and Tankerton Creek. Until the mid 20th century, the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp adjoined the bay in the north, covering an area of 30–40 thousand hectares, extending inland to present-day Pakenham, prior to cultivation of the land by early settlers. The mangroves in the northern reaches are the only remnants of this swamp today.</p><br>
<h3>Islands</h3><br>
<p>Western Port contains two large islands and several small ones; in approximate order of size:</p><br>
<p>French Island - 170 km² (population: 116)</p><br>
<p>Phillip Island - 100 km² (population: 9,000)</p><br>
<p>Middle Spit - exposed at low tide</p><br>
<p>Quail Island</p><br>
<p>Tortoise Head Bank - exposed at low tide</p><br>
<p>Churchill Island - 57 ha</p><br>
<p>Chinaman Island</p><br>
<p>Elizabeth Island</p><br>
<p>Sandstone Island</p><br>
<p>Reef Island</p><br>
<p>Long Island</p><br>
<p>Schnapper Rock</p><br>
<p>Pelican Island</p><br>
<p>Barrallier Island</p><br>
<p>Rams Island</p><br>
<p>Joe Island</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Western Port supports a mosaic of habitat types including underwater seagrass beds, intertidal rock platforms, sandy beaches, intertidal mudflats, tidal channels, saltmarshes and mangroves. The coastline around Phillip Island is of State significance because of its remnant coastal tussock grasslands and dune scrub, a rare vegetation community in Victoria.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Western Port consists of rocky platforms, sandy beaches and marine habitats. It is home to a diverse range of invertebrates including colonial ascidians, sponges and corals. Mudflats and mangrove swamps around the northern end of the bay support a large number of invertebrates that are an important food source for waders and visiting migratory birds. French Island is home to migratory waders, Australian pelicans, short-tailed shearwater rookeries, and many other significant fauna species. The bay has been identified as a 623 km Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it regularly supports small numbers of critically endangered orange-bellied parrots, over 1% of the world populations of Far Eastern curlews, red-necked stints and pied oystercatchers, and declining numbers of vulnerable fairy terns.</p><br>
<p>Phillip Island Penguin Reserve has the largest colony of little penguins in Victoria as well as a major colony of short-tailed shearwaters, with breeding hooded plovers and peregrine falcons. Seal Rock off Phillip Island is home to the largest colony of Australian fur seals and a breeding site of kelp gulls and sooty oystercatchers. San Remo&#39;s marine community is a rich assemblage of marine biota listed under the State Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act, 1988. The bay is listed under the Ramsar Convention for its internationally important wetlands.</p><br>
<p>The Moonlit Sanctuary Wildlife Conservation Park situated near the north western corner of the bay in Pearcedale offers a close up look at some of the indigenous mammals and birds of the region.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, numbers of whale sightings (mostly southern right and humpback) have increased, and local institutes conduct researches of their presences in the bay along within vicinity to the bay and Port Phillip Bay, asking public to report sightings.</p><br>
<h2>Parklands</h2><br>
<p>Land:</p><br>
<p>Marine:</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Fishing, pleasure boating and yachting are some of the popular pastimes on the bay.</p><br>
<h3>Recreation on Phillip Island</h3><br>
<p>Penguin Reserve - visited at dusk to watch the penguins return to their burrows in the sand dunes</p><br>
<p>Seal Rocks - viewed through binoculars</p><br>
<p>Koala Conservation Centre</p><br>
<p>Bird watching</p><br>
<p>Scenic Flights from Philip Island Airport ( Located on Cape Woolamai)</p><br>
<h3>Recreation on French Island</h3><br>
<p>Bushwalking or bird observing; bush orchid and fishing areas; horse riding, bike rides, and deep water fishing</p><br>
<p>Koala habitat</p><br>
<p>Camping</p><br>
<h2>Shipping and boating</h2><br>
<p>Deep channels lead from Bass Strait into the western section of the bay, giving access to the region&#39;s port facilities. The town of Hastings is the main boat landing in the bay with the Yaringa Marina at Somerville also offering boat harbor facilities.</p><br>
<p>There are boat launching ramps at:</p><br>
<p>Stony Point -Concrete 3 lane ramp, 2 holding jetties, All Tides</p><br>
<p>Blind Bight -Tarmac Single lane ramp, Holding Jetty, High Tide</p><br>
<p>Corinella -Concrete 2 lane ramp, 2 Holding jetties, All Tides</p><br>
<p>Hastings - Concrete 4 lane ramp, Holding Jetty, All Tides</p><br>
<p>There are also ramps at Tooradin, Newhaven, Cowes, Warneet, Lang Lang, Grantville, Flinders, and Rhyll (Phillip Island).</p><br>
<p>A ferry runs between Cowes, Tankerton And Stony Point at certain times ( Check timetable at destinations) during the year.</p><br>
<p>Accommodation is available on both Phillip Island and French Island.</p><br>
<h3>Industry</h3><br>
<p>Western Port has several industrial complexes, including a BlueScope Steel steel processing works and the major Royal Australian Navy training base, HMAS Cerberus. Holden Australia&#39;s proving ground is located just east of Western Port.</p><br>
<p>Current development plans for the Port at Hastings would see it become the major shipping port for container and bulk freight in and out of Victoria. Substantial opposition to the development has been raised by local communities concerned with the scale of the development and its impact upon the fragile ecosystem of the bay. Blue Wedges and provide a voice for many of the objections raised by concerned locals.</p><br>
<h2>Regulations</h2><br>
<p>For the protection of the marine environment, a number of activities are prohibited within the boundaries of Victoria&#39;s Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries. No fishing, netting, spearing, taking or killing of marine life. All methods of fishing, from the shore or sea, are prohibited. No taking or damaging of animals, plants and objects or artefacts. There are strong penalties under the National Parks Act for fishing in Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. All offenses can by reported to the Department of Primary Industries.</p><br>
<p>However, you may carry fin-fish on board your boat within park boundaries if you caught the fish outside the parks and you may also carry but not use, a fishing rod or spear gun. You may also have abalone or rock lobster associated equipment on board the boat provided that you are travelling straight through the park by the shortest practicable route.</p><br>
<p>Fort Verde State Historic Park in the town of Camp Verde, Arizona is a small park that attempts to preserve parts of the Apache Wars-era fort as it appeared in the 1880s. The park was established in 1970 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places a year later.</p><br>
<p>Settlers in the mid-19th century near the Verde River grew corn and other crops with the prospect of getting good prices from nearby Prescott, which was the territorial capital, and from nearby miners. The rapid increase in population for the mining economy disrupted the hunting and gathering environments of the local native American tribes, the Dilzhee Apache and Yavapai. In turn, they raided the farmers crops for food.</p><br>
<p>The farmers requested military protection from the United States Army and, in 1865, although Arizona was still only a territory, the infantry arrived. They set up several posts over the next few years:</p><br>
<p>1865, a small camp five miles (8 km) south of what is today Camp Verde.</p><br>
<p>1866-1871, Camp Lincoln, a mile north of today&#39;s Fort Verde.</p><br>
<p>1871-1873, Camp Verde, built gradually from 1871 to 1873.</p><br>
<p>1879, Camp Verde, renamed Fort Verde</p><br>
<p>1891, Fort Verde abandoned</p><br>
<p>1899, sold at public auction</p><br>
<p>After approximately 1,500 local natives were placed on a reservation by 1872, the army&#39;s role changed from protecting the settlers to ensuring that the Indians stayed on the reservation. The last major military engagement with uprising natives took place in 1882 at the Battle of Big Dry Wash.</p><br>
<p>The fort was never enclosed by walls or stockades, and it never saw fighting on site. At its height, it consisted of twenty-two buildings, only four of which survived until 1956, when local citizens created a small museum in the administration building. They later donated the buildings and ten acres (40,000 m²) as a State Park.</p><br>
<p>Some of the buildings were built with pice, which is large adobe slabs cast within wooden frames, rather than assembled from the more familiar individual adobe bricks.</p><br>
<p>The Breithorn  is a mountain range of the Pennine Alps with its highest peak of the same name ), located on the border between Switzerland and Italy. It lies on the main chain of the Alps, approximately halfway between the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa and east of the Theodul Pass. Most of the massif is glaciated and includes several subsidiary peaks, all located east of the main summit: the Central Breithorn, the western Breithorn Twin , the Gendarm  and the Roccia Nera. The main summit is sometimes distinguished by the name Western Breithorn , Breithorn Occidentale). The nearest settlements are Zermatt  and St-Jacques .</p><br>
<p>The Breithorn is considered the most easily climbed 4,000 m Alpine peak. This is due to the Klein Matterhorn cable car which takes climbers to over 3,820 m (12,700 ft) from Zermatt for a starting point. The standard route (SSW flank) is from the Italian side of the mountain (the south side) and continues over a glacial plateau before climbing to the summit on a 35 degree snow slope. However, inexperienced mountaineers may run into severe difficulty if caution is not taken near cornices or in bad weather. For experienced climbers wanting more of a challenge, the half traverse of the Breithorn crest is another option.</p><br>
<p>The Breithorn was first climbed in 1813 by Henry Maynard (climber), Joseph-Marie Couttet, Jean Gras, Jean-Baptiste Erin and Jean-Jacques Erin.</p><br>
<p>Wotho Atoll  is a coral atoll of 13 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. Its total land area is only 4.33 km&sup2, but it encloses a lagoon of 94.92 km&sup2;. The name "Wotho" means either "entrance through the reef", or "island far away" according to different sources.</p><br>
<p>The population of Wotho Atoll was 160 in 1998.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>First recorded sighting of Wotho Atoll by Europeans was by the Spanish expedition of Miguel López de Legazpi on 12 January 1565. They were charted as Las Hermanas (The Sisters in Spanish). It is likely that it had been visited earlier, in between December 1542 and January 1543, by the Spanish expedition of Ruy López de Villalobos. The atoll was later also known as Schantz Islands after Johan Eberhard von Schantz, who rediscovered the islands on his circumnavigation of the globe on the Imperial Russian Navy ship America in 1835. Wotho Atoll was claimed by the Empire of Germany along with the rest of the Marshall Islands in 1884. After World War I, the island came under the South Pacific Mandate of the Empire of Japan. the end of World War II, it came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Žumberak Mountains  is a range of hills and mountains in northwestern Croatia and southeastern Slovenia, extending from the southwest to the northeast between the Krka and the Kupa. It covers an area of 430 km&sup2;. The geographically unified massif consists of two parts, separated by the Bregana River and Žumberak River . The northeastern part is the Samobor Hills  with the foothills. The central and western part is named Žumberak Hills . Its northwesternmost part, named Gorjanci, lies in Slovenia. The highest peak of the range is Sveta Gera  on the border between Croatia and Slovenia, being 1,178 m high. Since 1999, an area of the range in Croatia has been protected as the nature park Žumberak–Samobor Hills.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>Žumberak Mountains lie near and partly on the border between Croatia and Slovenia, which, mostly, passes through the highest parts of the massif. Croatian part of the mountain range is in Central Croatia, mostly in western part of Zagreb County and a smaller part is in Karlovac County. Slovene part belongs to the traditional region of Lower Carniola. The Žumberak Mountains is situated only 25 km 25 km from Croatian capital, Zagreb. Cities near this range are Samobor, Jastrebarsko, and Ozalj in Croatia, and Novo Mesto, Brežice, and Kostanjevica na Krki in Slovenia.</p><br>
<p>The range is on territory of four cities:</p><br>
<p>Samobor, Novo Mesto, Jastrebarsko and Ozalj</p><br>
<p>and 7 municipalities</p><br>
<p>Krško, Kostanjevica na Krki, Šentjernej, Brežice, Žumberak, Krašić and Klinča Sela.</p><br>
<h3>Border dispute</h3><br>
<p>The highest peak, Sveta Gera/Trdinov vrh, is subject to a border dispute between Croatia and Slovenia. An old Yugoslav People&#39;s Army barracks building stands there that is used as an outpost by the Slovenian Army since the 1990s, although it is recorded in the Croatian land registry, and Croatian side see this as an occupation of their land. Since then that has been a subject of a dispute between the two new countries.</p><br>
<p>The situation became more complex when the dispute nearly derailed Croatias application to join NATO. It escalated further with Slovenias blockade of Croatia&#39;s EU accession from December 2008 until September–October 2009, when Slovenia (a European Union member state) blocked the negotiation progress of Croatia (at the time an EU candidate state). However, further escalation was prevented due to amicable diplomacy of the Croatian and Slovenian prime ministers Jadranka Kosor, and Borut Pahor.</p><br>
<h2>Flora</h2><br>
<p>There are more than 1,000 species of different plant life recorded in this area, some of which are strictly protected. In the area of the Nature Park 90 species of Croatian vascular flora from the Red Book are recorded. On the global level 3 of them are critically endangered, 11 are endangered and 28 are globally sensitive.</p><br>
<p>Forests cover huge area of the range. there are few Old-growth forests mostly on slovene part of the highest ridge, close to Sveta Gera. These are Old-growth forest Ravna Gora, and Old-growth forest trdinov vrh. Most common are the forests of Sessile Oak and hornbeam and on steeper slopes are the forests of Downy Oak and hop hornbeam. Beech forests cover the highest ridges. Some endangered and protected plants are found here, such as are globally sensitive species Iris croatica and Daphne blagayana.</p><br>
<p>Globally sensitive species of wild orchids and lilies can be found in areas between forests and open habitats.</p><br>
<p>There is only a small area of grassland of natural origin. The local population exploited grassland. Grassland are rich in species. In some areas more than 40 species of plants have been recorded on one square meter! Many of them are in the Red Book of vascular flora in Croatia.</p><br>
<p>The areas of damp and marsh-like grassland and plain and moors also can be found here. Important example is the area along the Jasinje creek where even 7 strongly protected and 12 protected plant species have been recorded. Among them we stress critically endangered species on global level – tall cottongrass (Eriophorum angustifolium) and alpine asphodel (Tofieldia calyculata); globally endangered species of sedges, globally sensitive species: grass-like sedge (Carex panicea) and lesser butterfly-orchid (Platanthera bifolia) and species with the status of not sufficiently explored (DD) in Croatia, elongated sedge (Carex elongata).</p><br>
<p>There are 377 species of mushrooms in the Park area. It is supposed that this is only smaller number of a total number of mushrooms in this area, In the research carried on in 2007, 7 new species of mushrooms were found in Žumberak – Samoborsko gorje Nature Park. Arched Woodwax (Hygrophorus camarophyllus) is on the Red List of the mushrooms in Croatia with EN category of endanger (globally endangered species).</p><br>
<p>There are 79 discovered species of lichens, three of which are on the Red List of lichens in Croatia. These are Bryoria fuscescens (with status VU – sensitive family), Lobaria pulmonaria (with status EN – endangered family) and genus Usnea (status VU). The research discovered several localities rich in lichen species like wild forest of beech in area of Kuti and wider area of Budinjak, Sv. Gera. Old orchards in grassland are explored as well.</p><br>
<p>Following families are found and put on the Red List of Croatia: Baeomyces rufus (almost endangered species – NT), Dibaeis baeomyces (VU), Lobaria pulmonaria (VU), Menegazzia terebrata (VU) i Solorina saccata (VU).</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Here you may see large predators as bears (Ursus arctos) and wolf (Canis lupus). There are also numerous species of small mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates.</p><br>
<p>There are many birds living in this area. Some are birds of prey like goshawk, and birds living next to creeks (white-throated dipper and grey wagtail). In lower parts, Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) can be seen, and occasionally even white stork (Ciconia ciconia).</p><br>
<p>Most of amphibian and reptile species which you can find in continental Croatia, can be found here. Spotted salamander (Salamandra salamandra) is a regular inhabitant of the areas near creeks. Very rare black salamanders (Salamandra atra) can be seen in higher areas.</p><br>
<p>Ponds, which were formerly used as stock waterholes, are important hatching places for amphibians like toads, newts and frogs. Snakes are common here. Venomous snakes - Viper (Vipera ammodytes) and grass snake (Natrix natrix), and nonvenomous - Aesculapian snake (Elaphe longissima), smooth snake (Coronella austriaca) and dice snake (Natrix tessellata) – strictly protected species listed on the Red List. The commonest lizard is wall lizard (Podarcis muralis), slow-worm (Anguis fragilis), European green lizard (Lacerta viridis) and common lizard (Lacerta vivipara).</p><br>
<p>There are 21 species of fish, from 8 families. They live in river Kupa, Kupčina, and other rivers and creeks in the area. Some of them are Eudontomyzon vladykovi, Squalius cephalus and Cobitis elongata.</p><br>
<p>Brown Trouts are common inhabitants in the Park because of suitable ecological conditions (water temperature, quantity of oxygen and creeks&#39; speed).Austropotamobius torrentium, also called the stone crayfish, can be found in creeks, although very rare.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous invertebrates which enrich biological diversity of the area. Many of them are endangered. However, due to insufficient research, not all are recorded. The most endangered is globally sensitive species of butterfly mountain alcon blue (Phengaris rebeli), whose existence is closely related to equally endangered and protected forest ant.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous species of invertebrates, in caves and holes, that have not been explored yet. There are bats as well – our most endangered mammal. Recent exploration of karstic underground in the Park discovered some species of arthropods which are completely new in science.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistoric times</h3><br>
<h4>Eneolithic</h4><br>
<p>The earliest artefacts in the Žumberak Mountains, small axe, and fragments of a pot, were found in the village of Mrzlo Polje Žumberačko. They belong to the people of Baden culture (Lasinya culture).</p><br>
<h4>Iron Age</h4><br>
<p>There is a large archaeological survey in Budinjak. Large settlement and a necropolis with 140 tumuli were discovered. One of the most important findings is bronze,Kneževa kaciga (Prince&#39;s Helmet), found in one of two biggest tumuli, with diameter of 19 meters 19 m. Today it is in Archaeological Museum in Zagreb. This is a proof that Budinjak was a settlement with powerful economy which had contacts with faraway lands.</p><br>
<p>In late Iron Age, the Celtic tribes started conquering and colonizing this part of Europe. It is pressumed that they had many settlements in the Žumberak Mountains, since mint was discovered in Samobor. Under the Okić castle, in the forest of Jama near Podgrađe, a man found 1600 silver Celtic coins. These coins are now called Samobors.</p><br>
<h3>Roman period</h3><br>
<p>In 35 - 33 BC the Žumberak Mountains became part of the Roman Republic, later empire, province of Pannonia. The most important remains are several graveyards dating from 1st century AD found in the central Žumberak Mountains, in villages of Gornja Vas and Bratelji. People buried in those graveyards belonged to the Celtic tribe of Latobics. Many glass containers were found in these graves. These containers were produced in northern Italy, and they are proof that people in the Žumberak Mountains had a powerful economy at that time.</p><br>
<h3>Middle Ages</h3><br>
<p>After the decline of the Roman Empire, numerous Germanic and Slavic tribes passed across the Pannonian Plain. Almost nothing is known when the Croats came to the Žumberak Mountains. The earliest written texts and archaeological finds enlighten the history of the Žumberak Mountains from the 12th century on. At that time the Žumberak Mountains were the border between the Croatian-Hungarian Kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire.</p><br>
<h3>Uskoks</h3><br>
<p>The isolated region on Croatian side has always had a low population. In 1530, the immigration of Uskoks started, which lasted until the 17th century, which brought a large population of Štokavian speakers to the region. The Žumberak Mountains were then part of Austrian Military Frontier, created by the Habsburgs to serve as a defensive buffer between their empire and the Ottoman Empire. Uskoks from this area, were the only military personnel in Military frontier, that weren&#39;t living close to the border itself, the Žumberak Mountains themselves were an enclave within Banovina and did not directly border the Ottoman Empire, so they had to walk for half a day or longer to their posts in Ogulin, Cazin, Bihać etc. It is believed that 500 Uskoks from the Žumberak Mountains fought in the Battle of Sisak. They had huge losses for their standard, losing 40 soldiers in crucial mission of taking over the bridge over Odra river.</p><br>
<p>In the year 1545. they were called by citizens of Zagreb, to defend the city from the Ottomans because the regular army under the leadership of Croatian Ban was heavily defeated in Hrvatsko Zagorje. As we know Zagreb was never occupied by the Ottomans.</p><br>
<h4>Language and religion</h4><br>
<p>Because of the immigration of Uskoks, the region is the intersection of all three Croatian dialects. The descendants of Uskoks who are Štokavian speakers are the majority in the Žumberak Mountains. The Žumberak Uskoks were mostly Orthodox Christians of the Serbian Patriarchate of Peć, but during 17th and 18th centuries came under the Union with Rome and became Greek Catholic, so there are more Greek Catholic churches in the Žumberak Mountains than Latin Catholic churches (approx. 2 to 1).</p><br>
<h3>Mass emigrations</h3><br>
<p>Mass emigrations started in the 19th century, when Military frontier was distablished. People in the Žumberak Mountains were no longer needed in the army. Since army salaries, which were main source of wealth, were not coming any more to the Žumberak Mountains. This was the main reason why people fell to poverty and started immigrating to the United States.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>World War II in Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 with the invasion by Nazi Germany. Soon after that, the Croatian part of the Žumberak Mountains became a part of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany and Italy, with the western part being directly occupied by Italy. The Slovenian part was annexed directly to the Third Reich. The resistance movement in the Žumberak Mountains began when Partisans from 1st Zagreb Partisan Detachment came to this area. Matija Gubec Partisan detachment was established here in August 1941, However it was quickly destroyed. In 1942 partisans from Kordun managed to attract local people to join the resistance, so in 1942 Žumberak-Pokuplje partisan detachment was established. Later they merged with First Croatian proleterian battalion in famous XIII. proleterian brigade Rade Končar. That brigade managed to liberate Krašić in January 1943, which was a great victory for Partisan movement, since North-West Croatia was considered to be NDH stronghold. Many villages were completely burned and destroyed by the fascists, because their inhabitants allegendly helped the partisans. Žumberak was finally liberated on 9 May 1945, by the 10th division of Yugoslav People&#39;s Army.</p><br>
<p>The Žumberak Mountains are the site of the Jazovka Pit, location of a World War II massacre of retreating Ustasha soldiers and civilians mostly from hospitals in Zagreb by the communists, not partisans from Žumberak-Pokuplje partisan detachment, or local people.</p><br>
<h3>In SFRY</h3><br>
<p>In sixties an seventies, second mass emigration started, mostly to Germany. Žumberak-Gorjanci memorial area established in 1971.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Croatia</h3><br>
<p>In 1991 area of the Žumberak Mountains became a part of independent Croatia and Slovenia. A military complex near the top of Trdinov vrh, created by the Yugoslav People&#39;s Army, has been a subject of a dispute between the two new countries since the 1990s since it is possessed by Slovenian army, but the complex is actually located on Croatian soil. Escalation was prevented due to amicable diplomacy.</p><br>
<p>Both, Slovenia, and Croatia, are members of the European Union, and it is expected that Croatia will soon join Schengen area, so there will be no actual border in the Žumberak Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation and threats</h2><br>
<p>The biggest threats to the range are deforestisation and illegal dumping of waste. Some argue that Krško nuclear power plant is endangering the northern parts of the range, but it&#39;s not scientifically proven</p><br>
<p>Most of the Croatian part of the range was protected as Nature park Žumberak-Samoborsko gorje by Croatian parliament Sabor, on 28 May 1999. which is since 2012. Natura 2000 site</p><br>
<p>Some areas inside the park itself are specially protected.</p><br>
<h2>List of protected areas</h2><br>
<h3>Croatia</h3><br>
<p>Nature park Žumberak-Samoborsko gorje</p><br>
<p>Significant landscape Slapnica</p><br>
<p>Significant landscape Okić</p><br>
<p>Special nature reserve (forest) Japetić</p><br>
<p>Nature monument Grgos cave</p><br>
<p>Park-forest Tepec and Stražnik</p><br>
<p>Special botanical reserve Smerovišće</p><br>
<p>Natura 2000 Vugrin cave</p><br>
<h3>Slovenia</h3><br>
<p>Natura 2000 Gorjanci-Radoha</p><br>
<p>Ecologically immpotant area (EPO) Gorjanci</p><br>
<p>Nature reserve Old-growth forest Trdinov vrh</p><br>
<p>Nature reserve Old-growth forest Ravna gora</p><br>
<p>Natural value of national important Kobila</p><br>
<p>Mount Wutai, also known by its Chinese name Wutaishan and as Mount Qingliang, is a sacred Buddhist site at the headwaters of the Qingshui in Shanxi Province, China. Its central area is surrounded by a cluster of flat-topped peaks roughly corresponding to the cardinal directions. The north peak  is the highest  and is also the highest point in northern China.</p><br>
<p>As host to over 53 sacred monasteries, Mount Wutai is home to many of Chinas most important monasteries and temples. It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2009 and named a AAAAA tourist attraction by Chinas National Tourism Administration in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>Mount Wutai is one of the Four Sacred Mountains in Chinese Buddhism. Each of the mountains is viewed as the bodhimaṇḍa (dàocháng; 道場) of one of the four great bodhisattvas. Wǔtái is the home of the Bodhisattva of wisdom, Mañjuśrī or Wénshū (文殊) in Chinese. Mañjuśrī has been associated with Mount Wutai since ancient times. Paul Williams writes:</p><br>
<p>Wutai was the first of the mountains to be identified and is often referred to as "first among the four great mountains". It was identified on the basis of a passage in the Avataṃsaka Sūtra, which describes the abodes of many bodhisattvas. In this chapter, Mañjuśrī is said to reside on a "clear cold mountain" in the northeast. This served as charter for the mountain&#39;s identity and its alternate name "Clear Cool Mountain" (Ch: Qīngliáng Shān; 清涼山).</p><br>
<p>The bodhisattva is believed to frequently appear on the mountain, taking the form of ordinary pilgrims, monks, or most often unusual five-colored clouds.</p><br>
<p>Mount Wutai has an enduring relationship with Tibetan Buddhism.</p><br>
<p>Mount Wutai is home to some of the oldest wooden buildings in China that have survived since the era of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). This includes the main hall of Nanchan Temple and the East Hall of Foguang Temple, built in 782 and 857, respectively. They were discovered in 1937 and 1938 by a team of architectural historians including the prominent early 20th century historian Liang Sicheng. The architectural designs of these buildings have since been studied by leading sinologists and experts in traditional Chinese architecture, such as Nancy Steinhardt. Steinhardt classified these buildings according to the hall types featured in the Yingzao Fashi Chinese building manual written in the 12th century.</p><br>
<p>In 2008, there were complaints from local residents that, in preparation for Mount Wutai&#39;s bid to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site, they were forced from their homes and relocated away from their livelihoods.</p><br>
<h2>Major temples</h2><br>
<p>Nanshan Temple (Chinese: 南山寺) 38.9815&deg;N latitude, 113.5738&deg;E longitude is a large temple in Mount Wǔtái, first built in the Yuan Dynasty. The whole temple comprises seven terraces, divided into three parts. The lower three terraces are named Jile Temple 極樂寺); the middle terrace is called Shande Hall (善德堂); the upper three terraces are named Youguo Temple (佑國寺). Other major temples include Xiantong Temple, Tayuan Temple and Pusading Temple.</p><br>
<p>Other important temples inside Mount Wutai include Shouning Temple, Bishan Temple, Puhua Temple, Dailuo Ding, Qixian Temple, Shifang Tang, Shuxiang Temple, Guangzong Temple, Youguo Temple, Guanyin Dong, Longhua Temple, Luomuhou Temple, Jinge Temple, Zhanshan Temple, Wanfo Ge, Guanhai Temple, Zhulin Temple, Jifu Temple, and Gufo Temple.</p><br>
<p>Outer Mount Wutai temples include Yanqing Temple, Nanchan Temple, Mimi Temple, Foguang Temple, Yanshan Temple, Zunsheng Temple, and Guangji Temple. A giant statue of Maha Manjushree was presented to the Buddhists of China by foreign minister of Nepal Ramesh Nath Pandey in 2005.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The Wutaishan Airport in nearby Dingxiang County opened in December 2015.</p><br>
<p>Star Carr is a Mesolithic archaeological site in North Yorkshire, England. It is around five miles  south of Scarborough.</p><br>
<p>It is generally regarded as the most important and informative Mesolithic site in Great Britain. It is as important to the Mesolithic period as Stonehenge is to the Neolithic period or Scandinavian York is to understanding Viking age Britain.</p><br>
<p>The site was occupied during the early Mesolithic archaeological period, which coincided with the preboreal and boreal climatic periods. Though the ice age had ended and temperatures were close to modern averages, sea levels had not yet risen sufficiently to separate Britain from continental Europe. Highlights among the finds include; Britain’s oldest structure, 21 red deer stag skull-caps that may have been head-dresses and nearly 200 projectile, or harpoon, points made of red deer antler. These organic materials were preserved due to having been buried in waterlogged peat. Normally all that remains on Mesolithic sites are stone tools.</p><br>
<p>Excavation of the site began in 1948, a year after artefacts were first noticed by an amateur archaeologist. The site is most famous for some of the extremely rare artefacts discovered during the original excavations but its importance has been reinforced by new understandings of the nature and extent of the Mesolithic archaeology in the area and reinterpretations of the original material.</p><br>
<h2>General information</h2><br>
<h3>Environmental context</h3><br>
<p>Star Carr now lies under farmland at the eastern end of the Vale of Pickering. During the Mesolithic the site was near the outflow at the western end of a paleolake, known as Lake Flixton. At the end of the last ice age a combination of glacial and post-glacial geomorphology caused the area to drain to the west (away from the shortest-distance to the sea at ). The basin filled by Lake Flixton was probably created by glacial scarring.</p><br>
<p>The site is preserved due to Lake Flixton having been in-filled with peat during the course of the Mesolithic. Waterlogged peat prevents organic finds from oxidising and has led to some of the best preservation conditions possible (such conditions have preserved the famous bog bodies found in other parts of northern Europe).</p><br>
<p>As a result of such good conditions archaeologists were able to recover bone, antler and wood in addition to the flints that are normally all that is left on sites from this period.</p><br>
<p>During the period of Mesolithic occupation the area surrounding the lake would have been a mixed forest of birch, aspen and willow. The lake edge and shallows would have been full of reeds, water lily and other aquatic plants and lake levels would have changed dynamically in response to rainfall or snow-melt.</p><br>
<p>These and many other plants would have formed the base of a complex food web. The mammals that we have evidence for include herbivores such as beaver, red deer, roe deer, elk (known as moose in North America), aurochs, wild boar, hare and carnivores such as wolf, lynx, bear, fox, pine marten, badger and hedgehog.</p><br>
<h3>Key artifacts</h3><br>
<p>Along with the flints that are characteristic of Mesolithic sites, there were a large number of objects made of red deer and elk antler, elk bone, aurochs bone and one piece of bird bone. Rarer objects included worked amber, shale, haematite, iron pyrites, a decorated pendant, thought to be the oldest known Mesolithic art in Britain and tightly-rolled pieces of birch-bark and pieces of birch-resin pitch or tar and worked wood.</p><br>
<p>The flint found at Star Carr came from nearby beaches, which at time of occupation would have been about 10 to 20 km distant, and also from the Yorkshire Wolds immediately to the south of the site.</p><br>
<p>The two most outstanding categories of finds are the barbed points and antler frontlets. The barbed points are made of the antler of red deer stags. They are between 8 cm and 38 cm in length and the 195 examples found at Star Carr account for more than 95% of the total number from the British Mesolithic. Many of the barbed points and antler frontlets appear to be deliberately broken. The antler frontlets are made from red deer stag (male) skulls with the antlers still attached. The 21 antler frontlets are sufficiently complete to see how they have been manufactured: two holes were perforated through the skull with a flint tool and the inside of the skull cap was smoothed. The antlers on each frontlet has been carefully trimmed maybe to reduce weight. It seems very likely that these modifications are designed to allow the frontlets to be used as headgear. Finds from the site are now divided between four institutions: The British Museum, the Natural History Museum in London, the University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Cambridge and the Scarborough Museum.</p><br>
<h3>Evidence of structures</h3><br>
<p>Post holes, a sunken area and concentrations of flints, burning and other artefacts indicate the presence of a structure approximately 3.5 m wide. The posts were almost certainly made of wood and roughly 20 cm in diameter there may have been as many as 18 of them and the holes indicated that several may have been replaced over the course of the structure&#39;s use.</p><br>
<p>It is impossible to know the form or materials from which the walls and/or roof would have been made. They may have used hides, thatch, turf or bark on a conical (teepee-like) or rounded (wigwam-like) frame. There is no reason to suppose that the same materials and form would have been used for the structure&#39;s entire life-span. There was evidence that the floor was covered with a layer of moss, reeds and other soft plant materials 20 cm–30 cm deep.</p><br>
<p>Radiocarbon dates indicated a use-life of between 200 and 500 years.</p><br>
<p>The structure has been compared to the Mesolithic structure found at Howick, Northumberland and British Iron Age roundhouses.</p><br>
<p>A large wooden platform has been discovered nearby on the shore of the former lake – the earliest known example of carpentry in Europe, though its purpose is as yet unknown. Timbers of Aspen and Willow were split along the grain using wedges (probably made of wood and antler); these were then laid in the boggy areas at the lake shore, presumably to provide firm footing.</p><br>
<p>The extent of the wooden platform is not known but it may be a significantly larger and more complex undertaking than the house-like structure.</p><br>
<h3>Chronology</h3><br>
<p>Current radiocarbon dates from the site itself indicate occupation from around 8770 BC until about 8460 BC, with a possible period of abandonment between 8680 BC and 8580 BC. Recent research indicates updated typochronological models.</p><br>
<h2>History of investigations</h2><br>
<h3>Discovery and initial excavations</h3><br>
<p>Star Carr was discovered in 1947 when John Moore, an amateur archaeologist, noticed flints in the exposed soil of several recently dredged ditches in the eastern Vale of Pickering. One of these sites, bordering on the New Hertford River was to the south of Star Carr Farm. Moore decided to excavate a small trench at Star Carr in 1948 as part of a series of investigations. On the discovery of intact organic remains Moore contacted Professor Grahame Clark of the University of Cambridge via Harry Godwin and the curator of the Scarborough Museum, Arthur Roy Clapham.</p><br>
<p>Clark began his investigation with the explicit aim of building a more detailed picture of the Mesolithic environment and the ways in which people used it. The organic preservation enabled the recovery of the plant and animal remains necessary for this. Clark excavated from 1949 to 1951. Clark&#39;s 1954 publication of these excavations is a seminal text in the study of the British Mesolithic and prehistory generally.</p><br>
<p>Clark believed he had uncovered the entirety of the site and believed Star Carr could be used as a type-site for the British Mesolithic. He drew parallels between the finds at Star Carr and the site of Maglemose in Denmark. It is now recognised that many of Clark’s inferences were incorrect but the excavation remains one of the most important in the study of British prehistory ever undertaken.</p><br>
<h3>Further investigations: The Lake Flixton Landscape</h3><br>
<p>In 1977 archaeologists excavated Iron Age, Bronze Age and Mesolithic material from Seamer Carr, just to the north of Star Carr. These excavations were conducted in advance of the Seamer Carr landfill site. The discovery of Mesolithic material led to a new series of investigations around Lake Flixton directed by Tim Schadla-Hall (currently University College London) and Paul Lane (currently University of York). This team returned to Star Carr in 1985 and 1989.</p><br>
<p>This project investigated the archaeology and ecology of the wider landscape around Lake Flixton and found several more Mesolithic sites but none with as many of the unusual artefacts (such as barbed points and antler frontlets) discovered at Star Carr.</p><br>
<h3>The latest investigations</h3><br>
<p>In the 2000s new excavations began at Star Carr. This reinvestigation is being directed by Nicky Milner (University of York), Chantal Conneller (University of Manchester) and Barry Taylor (University of Chester). This ongoing project has reinvestigated Clark&#39;s excavations and also excavated the dry-land, discovering the structure.</p><br>
<p>Most significantly, recent geochemical investigations have demonstrated that the preservation conditions have deteriorated. The result of this is that any remaining organic artefacts will be far less informative than those discovered by previous excavation projects. Though the reasons for this remain somewhat unclear, it appears that the acidity of the groundwater has massively increased in the last few years.</p><br>
<p>A decorated pendant, thought to be the oldest known Mesolithic art in Britain, was found at the site in 2015. The 11,000 year old object was on display at the Yorkshire Museum with other finds from the site from 27 February until 5 May 2016.</p><br>
<h2>Interpretive debates</h2><br>
<p>Clark, the original excavator, believed the Mesolithic people would have lived on a brushwood platform on the edge of the former Lake Flixton. Recent excavations have revealed that people lived on the dry land upslope of the lake and various activities were carried out at the lake edge.</p><br>
<p>There is much debate about the time of year the site was occupied. Mesolithic people hunted a number of animals including red and roe deer, elk, aurochs and wild boar but there are various seasonal assessments and as the site was occupied over several hundred years it is likely that seasonal practices varied over time.</p><br>
<p>It has been suggested that the antler frontlets were used as a hunting disguise, or in some form of ritual practice. Recent work suggests that these, along with other objects made from red deer antler, appear to have been respectfully deposited at the lake edge due to the spiritual significance of red deer to the people who occupied the site.</p><br>
<p>Anthony Legge and Peter Rowley-Conway re-examined the animal bones located at the site. They found strong evidence to suggest that the site was used only in late spring and summer; evidence that the cull of red and roe deer was biased towards three- and one-year-old animals respectively; revision of available meat; reduction in scale of occupation; no bias towards hunting of male red deer, and tentatively suggested that the site was used as a hunting camp.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle  is an uninhabited island just off the coast of Labrador and north of Newfoundland at the Atlantic entrance to the Strait of Belle Isle which takes its name. Named by French explorer Jacques Cartier, the island lies on the shortest shipping lane between the Great Lakes and Europe, and also on the main north–south shipping route to Hudson Bay and the Northwest Territories. The northern terminus of the International Appalachian Trail is located on Belle Isle.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle rises to about 213 m at its highest point, 52 km&sup2; in area, 16 km long and 5 km wide. It is nearly 24 km from either coast, though slightly closer to the Labrador side of the Strait of Belle Isle, and has a lighthouse (supported by flying buttresses) at both its northern and southern ends. Officially uninhabited, there is some seasonal occupation during fishing season.</p><br>
<p>Belle Isle is the northernmost peak of the Appalachian Mountains, which extend in various shapes over 3,200 km southwest to Alabama, US.</p><br>
<p>Ice patterns show that the island lies at the meeting point of two sea currents: The Labrador Current flows from the northwest, and a smaller current, driven by dominant westerly winds, flows from the southwest. Flow lines in sea ice give a sense of the movement of the ice. Ice floes embedded in the Labrador Current appear as a relatively open pattern. Sea ice with a denser pattern enters from the strait, banking against the west side of Belle Isle. Tendrils flow around capes at either end of the island, with an ice-free "shadow" on the opposite, downstream side. Eddies off the western coast in the ice patterns (indicated by curved arrows in the photo) show where the currents interact north and west of the island.</p><br>
<p>Lepenski Vir , located in Serbia, is an important archaeological site of the Mesolithic Iron Gates culture of the Balkans. The latest radiocarbon and AMS data suggests that the chronology of Lepenski Vir is compressed between 9500/7200-6000 BC. There is some disagreement about the early start of the settlement and culture of Lepenski Vir. But the latest data suggest 9500-7200 to be the start. The late Lepenski Vir  architectural development was the development of the Trapezoidal buildings and monumental sculpture The Lepenski Vir site consists of one large settlement with around ten satellite villages. Numerous piscine sculptures and peculiar architecture have been found at the site.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologist Dragoslav Srejović, who first explored the site, said that the sculptures of this size so early in human history and original architectural solutions, define Lepenski Vir as the specific and very early phase in the development of the prehistoric culture in Europe. The site is noted for its level of preservation and the overall exceptional quality of the artifacts. Due to the fact that the settlement was a permanent and planned one, with organized human life, architect Hristivoje Pavlović labeled Lepenski Vir as "the first city in Europe".</p><br>
<h2>Location and geography</h2><br>
<p>Lepenski Vir is located on the right bank of the Danube in eastern Serbia, within the Iron Gates gorge. It is situated in the village of Boljetin, near Donji Milanovac.</p><br>
<p>The location of the settlement and its continual habitation of several millennia, points to the prominent, "busy place". The view above and across the Danube is wide open and the stable and enduring terrain on the river&#39;s bank which resists the aggressively erosive effects of the Danube. The stability is secured by 2 or 3 boulders at the top of the plaz, a rocky cape deeply protruding into the river. The boulders acted like a natural anchor to the terrain on which the settlement developed. The long habitation was also enabled thanks to the vicinity of the big river, natural richness of the hinterland, thermic benefits of the accumulated limestone cliffs (taking in account the ice age which just finished) and the presumable knowledge of some birth control principles, given the limited area on which the settlement could grow, even though it is believed that there is still an undiscovered part of the settlement.</p><br>
<p>Due to the protruding rocks, the whirlpools were created, and the swirling waters are more oxygenated, richer in algae and thus abundant in fish. The whirling makes the fishing easier, as opposed to the rushing waters of the Danube through the gorge. Also, the swirling water actually deposited the materials on the downstream side of the plaz, known today as Katarinine Livadice, making it stronger and more stable, instead of allowing the fast and strong river current to erode it. In the immediate hinterland, there is a slope of Košo Brdo. Embedded into it is the natural stone niche or a rock shelter (abij), called Lepenska Potkapina, which was explored by archaeologist.</p><br>
<p>Downstream from Lepenski Vir, in the direction of the Vlasac location, and half-way to the mouth of the small Boljetinka, or Lepena river, there is a 40 m high vertical Lepena Rock, rising over the river. At the foothills of the rock, the Romans built a road which is today submerged under the waters of Lake Đerdap. It is situated at the depth of 13.5 m, together with the commemorative road plaque of Emperor Tiberius. The slope above the Danube between the Lepena Rock and the mouth of the Lepena river is also called Lepena, so as the bight where the slope ends.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>The site was discovered on 30 August 1960, on the lot owned by the local farmer, Manojlo Milošević.</p><br>
<p>After almost three decades of pause, archaeological exploration of the region was organized by the Belgrade Institute for Archaeology. Construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station was to begin and it would flood the bank regions with its artificial lake, so archaeologists wanted to explore the area as much as possible prior to that. Head of the project at the time was Dušanka Vučković-Todorović, a fellow at the Institute. The explored area included the territory between Prahovo and Golubac. Archaeologist Obrad Kujović explored the Lepenski Vir section with his assistant Ivica Kostić, following the works of previous travelers and archaeologists like Felix Philipp Kanitz or Nikola Vulić. The location appeared ideal for the settlement so Kujović and Kostić surveyed it. They&#39;ve found so much ceramic fragments that it seemed like they discovered a ceramics workshop. Kujović recognized it as an important archaeological site, collected fragments, dated them as part of the Starčevo Culture and made a report for the Institute. Srejović, intrigued by the findings, contacted Kujović in 1961 for detailed information.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>Srejović managed to acquire funds and on 6 August 1965 began exploration of the site with Zagorka Letica, Probing of the terrain in 1965 grew into the protective excavations in 1966 and developed into the fully, systematic excavations in 1967 as they dug deeper. The cultural-archaeological layer starts below the surface layer of humus, 50 cm thick.</p><br>
<p>It was only in 1967 that its importance was fully understood after the discovery of the first Mesolithic sculptures and the findings were publicly announced on 16 August 1967. The excavations ended in 1971 when the whole site was relocated 29.7 m higher to avoid flooding from the newly formed artificial Đerdap Lake, created by the construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station. The main contribution to the exploration of this site was through the work of professor Dragoslav Srejović of the University of Belgrade. Exploring up to the depth of 3.5 m, 136 or 138 buildings, settlements and altars were found in the initial excavations in 1965-1970. A necropolis was discovered in 1968.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The main site consists of several archeological phases starting with Proto-Lepenski Vir, then Lepenski Vir Ia-e, Lepenski Vir II and Lepenski Vir III, whose occupation spanned from 1,500 to 2,000 years, from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic period, when it was succeeded by the Neolithic Vinča culture and Starčevo culture, both upstream the Danube, 135 km and 139 km from Lepenski Vir, respectively. A number of satellite villages belonging to the same culture and time period were discovered in the surrounding area. These additional sites include Hajdučka Vodenica, Padina, Vlasac, Ikaona, Kladovska Skela and others. Found artifacts include tools made from stone and bones, the remains of houses, and numerous sacral objects including unique stone sculptures.</p><br>
<p>It is assumed that the people of Lepenski Vir culture represent the descendants of the early European population of the Brno-Předmostí (Czech Republic) hunter gatherer culture from the end of the last ice age. Archeological evidence of human habitation of the surrounding caves dates back to around 20,000 BC. The first settlement on the low plateau dates back to 9500-7200 BC, a time when the climate became significantly warmer.</p><br>
<p>, a bare porphyritic cliff (679 m high) which rises on the left bank of the Danube opposite Lepenski Vir like a giant sentinel of the prehistoric settlement. Treskavac was very important to the habitants of Lepenski Vir. The development of the settlement was strongly influenced by the topology of the surrounding area. It sat on a narrow plateau on the banks of the river, squeezed between cliffs and the flow of the Danube. As such it offered only limited resources in terms of food, raw materials and living space. This is reflected in the findings from the earliest layer. Proto-Lepenski Vir represents only a small settlement of maybe just 4 or 5 families with fewer than a hundred inhabitants. The primary food source of the inhabitants was probably fishing. Fishing communities of this type are typical for the wider Danube valley region during this period.</p><br>
<p>In later periods the problems of overpopulation of the original settlement became evident. At this time important sociological change occurred.</p><br>
<p>Archaeological findings in the surrounding area show evidence of temporary settlements, probably built for the purpose of hunting and gathering of food or raw materials. This suggests a complex semi-nomadic economy with managed exploitation of resources in the area not immediately surrounding the village, something remarkable for the traditional view of Mesolithic people of Europe. More complexity in an economy leads to professional specialization and thus to social differentiation.</p><br>
<p>This is clearly evident in the layout of the Lepenski Vir Ia-e settlement. The village is well planned. All houses are built according to one complex geometric pattern. These remains of houses constitute the distinct Lepenski Vir architecture. The main layout of the village is clearly visible. The dead were buried outside the village in an elaborate cemetery. The only exceptions were apparently a few notable elders who were buried behind the fireplaces in houses.</p><br>
<p>The complex social structure was dominated by a religion which probably served as a binding force for the community and a means of coordination of activity for its members. Numerous sacral objects that were discovered in this layer support this theory. The most remarkable examples are piscine sculptures, unique to the Lepenski Vir culture, which represent one of the first examples of monumental sacral art on European soil.</p><br>
<p>Lepenski Vir gives us a rare opportunity to observe the gradual transition from the hunter gatherer way of life of early humans to the agricultural economy of the Neolithic. More and more complex social structure influenced the development of planning and self-discipline necessary for agricultural production.</p><br>
<p>Once agricultural products became a commodity, a new way of life replaced the old social structure. Distinct characteristics of Lepenski Vir culture, its house architecture and fish sculptures, disappeared gradually. Lepenski Vir III is representative of a Neolithic site and is more typical of other sites across a much wider area. The exact mechanism of this transition remains unclear, but the evidence suggests development through evolution rather than outside invasion.</p><br>
<h2>Localities</h2><br>
<p>The number of separate localities, central settlement and the satellite villages, in the Lepenski Vir-Kladovska Skela region is about 25. They were explored by the 1980s, when the river valley was flooded after the construction of the Iron Gate I and Iron Gate II Hydroelectric Power Station:</p><br>
<p>Kula - located in the village of Mihajlovac. It was explored by archaeologist Miodrag Sladić in the 1980s, before it was flooded by the Lake Đerdap II. It is a Meso-Neolithic locality, consisting of three natural layers: Kula I, Kula II (with sub-layers of II-a and II-b) and Kula III. According to the archaeologist Ivana Radovanović, Kula II is a contemporary of Lepenski Vir I and the houses on both locations are identical. The trapezoid foundations of the houses in Kula II are buried under the huge amount of the collapsed wall plaster.</p><br>
<p>Lepenski Vir or simply Vir, is much more complex. It consists of four layers (Proto-Lepenski Vir, Vir I, II and III) and seven sub-layers (I-a, b, c, d, e and III-a, b). The sub-layers of Vir I are not fully and clearly differentiated. In most cases they are not separate development strata, but are defined to make an easier visual overview because the periods of intensive construction, adaptation, renovation and rehashing of the settlement overlap through the layers. Vir III is the youngest layer of Lepenski Vir, belonging to the Neolithic Starčevo culture. The intermediate layer Vir II is Mesolithic, and "not fully sterile", pointing to the continuity and longevity of constant settlement in Lepenski Vir. The youngest layers of Vir III were damaged when the foundations for the much latter Roman watchtower were dug.</p><br>
<p>Based on an amount of anthropological changes on the skeletons, a microevolution was attested, as Srejović estimated that at least 120 generations lived in the settlement (2,000 years) while Hungarian anthropologist estimated that during the entire human habitation in Lepenski Vir, there were 240 to 280 generations, or almost 5,000 years of continual habitation. They made the distinction between the Lepenski Vir culture (1,500-2,000 years) and simple occupation of the same habitat (5,000 years).</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Seven successive settlements were discovered on the Lepenski Vir site, with the remains of 136 residential and sacral buildings dating from 9500/7200 BC to 6000 BC.</p><br>
<p>The layout of the houses, which are on the inclined plateau which opens to the river, is a terrace like, while they are spread in the fan-like shape, allowing the access to the river for the people from the houses further from the bank. As for the tools used for the construction works, not much survived or is not recognized as such. Apart from the human instinct for best use of the space and for the "please the eye" concept in architecture, it is quite possible than Lepenians possessed certain knowledge in this area that we wouldnt usually attribute to or expect from people in that period, or which atrophied in time as the civilization didnt survive and left no written documents. Mostly the burned deer antlers were discovered, but it is believed that, in order the divide the trapezoid shape of both the plateau and the houses they must have used sticks, tightening of the ropes, vertical rods, etc., or natural help, like the shadows.</p><br>
<h3>Houses</h3><br>
<p>The history of architecture still has no definite answer what is older: house (as a habitat) or temple (as a shrine). In Lepenski Vir, it appears that there was a process of gradual desacralization, which means that the shrines turned into the houses in time. The houses from the Vir I period are marked with the Arabic, while those from the Vir II with the Roman numerals. For example, the houses 61 and 65, from the Vir I were superimposed with the houses XXXIV and XXXV, from Vir II.</p><br>
<p>All the settlements follow the shape of the underlying terrain, a horseshoe-shaped plateau. Settlements always face the direction of the river, which was the obvious focus of life for its inhabitants. The basic layout of the settlement consists of two separate wings and a wide empty central space which served the purpose of a village square or meeting place. The settlement is radially divided with numerous pathways leading to the edge of the river. The outer edges of the village are parallel to the surrounding cliffs.</p><br>
<p>Domestic objects represent the transition from tent structure to house. All the houses share a very distinct shape, built according to a complicated geometric pattern. The basis of each of the houses is a circle segment of exactly 60 degrees, constructed in the manner of an equilateral triangle. The tip of the trapezoid base, a shape previously unknown in human settlements, is pointed into the direction of the wind (košava).</p><br>
<p>According to Srejović, the planned design of the settlement, its functionality and proportional forms, shows the almost modern sense of architecture. Despite a major age distance between then and now, the architectural plan of the settlement seems so contemporary and recognizable today, while architect Bogdan Bogdanović said that "everything, absolutely everything, to the smallest detail" about the Lepenski Vir, has enormous importance.</p><br>
<p>The houses are completely standardized in design, but greatly vary in size. The smallest of the houses have an area of 1.5 m&sup2; while the largest one covers 30 m&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>In the youngest periods, Vir III-a and III-b, which already corresponds to the Starčevo culture, the pit-houses are discovered, though some can also be found in the oldest period, Proto Vir. Digging just to the level of freezing point, which is in this area no more than 80 cm, the natural, constant temperature of the ground can be utilized. The walls of the dugout were plastered with mud which was then impregnated by huge fires. The clay was hardened to such an extent, that architect Radmilo Petrović managed to take out the complete clay coverings, like giant clay bowls out of the mold.</p><br>
<p>Another reason for digging the houses into the ground is the inclination of the terrain on which they were built, which is 11 degrees. On other localities, the conditions were different. On Vlasac, for example, the natural, funnel-shaped gullies were adapted into the houses.</p><br>
<h4>House 49</h4><br>
<p>House labeled as the House 49, is the smallest of all, and considered to be the most intriguing. Majority of researchers believe that this house was the prototype for the entire settlement. The fireplace in this house is also the smallest, not bigger than a shoe No. 42. Still, evidence shows that it was still used for fire.</p><br>
<h4>House XLIV</h4><br>
<p>The 30 m&sup2; large house 57, from the Vir I-e period, is overlaid with the house XLIV from the Vir II, which covers 42 m&sup2, making it the largest discovered house. It was obviously a very important for the settlement, not just because of its size, bad due to the location (it was nicknamed the "Central House") and the fact that its floor lapidarium yielded, depending on the source, 7-9 sculptures, more than any other house (17% out of the total of 52 sculptures). When the location was flooded, the study envisioned that the "flooding line" will cross right through this house, which would allow for further explorations, but the suggestion was ignored and the flood line was breached when the reservoir was formed. The most representative sculptures were discovered in this house, like the Praroditeljka ("Foremother"), Danubius, Praotac ("Forefather"), Rodonačelnik ("Progenitor"), Vodena vila ("Water fairy").</p><br>
<h3>Interior</h3><br>
<p>The interior of each house includes a fireplace in the form of an elongated rectangle placed on the long axis of the floorplan. These fireplaces were built from massive rectangular stone blocks. The fireplaces are further extended with stone block to create some kind of a small shrine in the back of the house. These shrines were always decorated with sculptures carved from massive round river stones and represent perhaps river gods or ancestors. Another significant feature of the houses is a shallow circular depression in the ground placed precisely in the exact middle. This may represent some kind of an altar.</p><br>
<p>The sculptures, fireplaces, altars, tables, arranged square stones, round depressions and intriguing triangles were all built ("concreted") into the hardened porphyritic floors. In all the houses they are in almost the same basic layout, which resembles the human figure. The scientists still can&#39;t agree on the purpose of the artifacts, except that the fireplaces were indeed used for the fire.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologist Ljubinka Babović accepted the Srejovićs theory that the layout within the house represent the human figure, but she believed that the figure is actually an anthropomorphized representation of the Sun, with added hands. She asserted that every house was actually a small Sun shrine and that plan of the settlement represents the astronomical movement of the Sun. She referred to the round stones as an ash hole, because ash was discovered in the round depressions. Philologist originally concluded that that this ash hole, cornered by the rectangular stones, was the fireplace, following Pešićs idea, but later changed opinion, accepting the general consensus that the rectangular hole in the center is the proper fireplace. Archaeologist wrote of the "unusual stone fireplaces for the complex ritual purposes". Srejović also used the semantic distinction between the inner fireplace, ognjište, and the outer one, vatrište. Excavations on the locality Vlasac point to the gradual transformation from vatrište to ognjište, or bringing the fire inside the houses. Regardless of which of the depressions are the proper fireplace, it is evident that the human-like floor installation is made of several elements, which are connected by some, still non deciphered, functional relations, but also by some visual and artistic ones.</p><br>
<h4>Central installation</h4><br>
<p>A pebble stone, placed in the geometrical center of the house and part of the floor installation representing the "head" of the perceived figure, is also variously explained. As it has a dent in it, it was suggested that it served as a primitive lamp, the so called "Magdalene lamp", a rushlight with a wick made of moss. The dent was made so that grease or tallow could be placed in it. Ristić opposed the theory saying that no evidence of fat or burning have been discovererd in any of the stones. He called the stones upretnik ("resistance stone") and believed their function was to serve as the foundation for the sticks or pillars, which held the covering construction of the house. During his reconstruction of the house, he used it for exactly the same purpose. Another idea is that it was used as a pouring vessel (for honey, etc.) which was used during the rituals. The proposed theory that it was used a grindstone was rejected as this was still the pre-harvesting period. Still, it may have been used for grinding wild seeds or some aromatic herbs. The stones have a curious engravings in the lower section. As the stones were "cemented" into the floor, the engravings couldn&#39;t be observed by the living, above the ground, so it is suggested that they were meant for the dead, which were sometimes buried under the floor of the house. Babović described the floors as a "border between day and night".</p><br>
<p>Central piece of the central section, the "body", was a controversial fireplace. It was definitely used for fire as the evidence of burning and ash are found. It was elongated, in the scale of 1:3 or 1:4 and surrounded by stones. In the older periods, the thin stones were used, later the thicker ones and in the end, quite rough and irregular stones, too, even though the geometry remained refined. It is suggested that the size of the fireplace is actually used as an etalon, a measurement module for the proportions of the house. Ristić said that the length of the fireplace is equal to the length of the spit, calculating that this length is the radius of the circumscribed circle which is the base of the house. Based on the measurements in 51 houses, it was established that the average fire hole is 78 cm long and 24 cm wide, which gives the ratio 1:3.25. Average with is another reason why some of the archaeologists believe that this wasn&#39;t a proper fireplace, being too narrow and impractical. The depth of the hole varies from 15 to 25 cm, but at least one quarter of those have a cascade bottoms. In these cases, the section closer to the entrance into the house, is 10 to 15 cm lower. The overall size of the fireplaces varies, depending on the size of the house, but it appears to be more balanced than the sizes of the houses. The smallest fireplace is 13 to 26 cm, while the largest are in the House 54 (32 to 111 cm) and House 37 31.5 to 105 cm.</p><br>
<p>Around the fireplace, the larger stones were placed, sometimes in two levels. They are differently called "stone tables", "sacrificial plates", "market stalls" or "hands". The stones were poured with the red floor plaster. In the later period of the Lepenski Vir I phase, the number of stones around the hole reduces or they disappear altogether. Instead, the triangles appear, which encircle the fireplace in an ellipsoid manner. They have been called simply triangles but also "triangular forms", "fireplace triangles" or "forks". Apart from Pešićs, generally unsupported interpretation that they are a proto-writing, the triangles have been described as the "little houses for the dead", support for the spits skewers, openings for the pouring of the drinks and food to the dead buried under the floor, support for the construction of some larger stove-like object above the fireplace, symbols of the light or fire and simply the vents for the heat from the fire. In all cases but one, the tips of the triangle are oriented towards the fireplace. The exception is located on the locality Kula.</p><br>
<p>The "legs" of the installation almost extends outside of the house. The round depression, which also can&#39;t be explained for sure (fireplace, ash hole, etc.) is in this section, and is equally accessible both from the inside and outside as it is situated at the entrance into the house. In literature, it is also named "(slanted) stone doorsteps" or simply "entrance". Babović noticed that there are several variants of it, which prompted her to classify the houses (or shrines, as she called them) in 4 categories.</p><br>
<p>"free step&quot when slanted stones were placed like two spread legs</p><br>
<p>"tied step&quot slanted stones are placed in the same way as at "free step", but additional stones was placed on the open side to make the connection between the slanted stones, creating a shallow triangular of trapezoid depression</p><br>
<p>"movement in the stationary status&quot no slanted stones, but the entrance was paved with the stone slabs, forming almost a fortification type obstacle at the entrance; there is no depression and the installation appears to be a sitting platform</p><br>
<p>"latent quiescence&quot absence of any stone construction at the entrance; some researchers suggested that this is actually not a separate type but rather an indication that this part of the house may not be covered, so due to the elements in time, the stones eroded. Additional influence may be the fact that the outer fireplace was right outside so the heating, and cooling, influenced the stones.</p><br>
<p>In the Neolithic, or Starčevo phase of Lepenski Vir, the Lepenians began building dome-shaped furnaces in the houses. They were built on the floor made from compacted earth, with the horseshoe-shaped foundations made of crushed stone. The calotte, or the dome of the furnace was made of baked earth. The hut, which was built on the most elevated section of the settlement&#39;s terrain and was positioned almost in the center of it, had the largest furnace, 1.5 x. Some researches believe that due to its size and position, it was probably built for communal use, but they also pointed out that its proportions equals those of the "prototype house", House 49. It also has been suggested that the furnace from Lepenski Vir was a prototype for building of other furnaces, due to the archetypical uniformity of bread ovens in the wider Balkan area, and even further, and the canonical repetition of the same shape from the Neolithic to the modern age.</p><br>
<h3>Outer fireplace</h3><br>
<p>The outer fireplace was almost an continuation of the internal central installation. Placed on the entrance, it also acts like an obstacle ("fire serving as a door"). It probably served as a protection against wild animals, but also for heating of the house. The internal fireplace was too small for that purpose, and woods had to be cut and prepared for its small size. On the other hand, simply bringing the wood from the nearby lush forests or taking large logs brought by the Danube into the bay, they could set large fires outside the houses. Ritualistic meaning of the outer fires location have also been proposed (keeping the shadows inside the house, ritualistic bypassing of the fire when entering the house, fire as the entrance into the world of the spirits, etc.). Srejović pointed out that location of the outer fireplace was actually quite logical, given the views of the humans at that time. "The only building material&#39; the Lepenians had was being used to live the cave life...so their houses had the cave atmosphere". The cave people also light fires at the entrance into the caves, otherwise they would choke to death. Memory of living in caves was probably quite alive at the time, as the humans in other parts of Europe at that same time still lived in caves or natural shelters. The existence of a large outer fireplace and, apparently, not much practical internal one, prompted Pavlović to conclude that the small hole in the house actually served to keep and maintain the fire or ember, which developed in time into the ritual. He compared it to the way the Pythian priestesses kept the fire at Delphi.</p><br>
<h3>Reconstructions</h3><br>
<p>The remains of the settlements in Lepenski Vir abide to the universal rules of architecture, so the architectural remnants should be perceived and evaluated by those rules. However, the reconstruction of Lepenski Vir "resembles a gigantic, complex jigsaw puzzle, without having an exemplar picture".</p><br>
<p>The science still has no definitive answer what the houses looked like above the ground and there are numerous ideas from the architects, urbanists, historians and anthropologists. Vojislav Dević suggested long, intertwined arch-like wattle ("fish skeleton") while Živojin Andrejić opted for a transversal arches. Diagonally crisscrossed arches, with one wide at the entrance to prevent the bottleneck, were proposed by Pavlović. Srejović originally distanced himself from any proposition, considering all of them flawed in some way. In his 1969 book he did print the reconstruction of Đorđe Mitrović, however his text differed greatly from the illustration. The concept was judged by some as clumsy, primitive, technically impossible and, simply, wrong. Still, the drawings became internationally known. Srejović again distanced himself saying that such roof construction was too primitive for the perfectly shaped base, adding that we should count with additional, still unknown elements, which may enable the completely different construction. In 1973 he also rejected Ristić&#39;s reconstruction, claiming that none of the proposed solutions so far seems definitive and that every idea had some incorrect details. He asserted that any final solution would "subdue the imagination of the creators" and that it will take generations and generations to solve the problem. Later, in 1980, Ristić received his PhD from the University of Graz on the subject "Reconstructions of the prehistoric architecture in Lepenski Vir".</p><br>
<p>Borislav Jovanović, who explored the Padina location tried the reconstruction as the basic "three-stick hut". The "official", Mitrović&#39;s version, after many changes and adaptations became technically possible by the time of the opening of the visitor center in Lepenski Vir, in 2011. The main problem was the relation of the inclinations of the roof surface and the purlin. Marija Jovin and Siniša Temerinski, from the Institute for the protection of the monuments, created a model based on the pronounced inclination of the purlin, removal of the central pillar and change of the direction of the roof carrier. That way, the concept of a slender, elongated construction was achieved, which allowed the excellent conduct of the smoke outside of the house. It was based on an older version of the simple tripod by Velizar Ivić and a more complex variant of Petar Đorđević, who worked on the excavation on the Padina location. Bojana Mihajlović and Andrej Starović from the National Museum in Belgrade created holographic animation of the house based on the "shallow" purlin and with animal hides on the roof instead of the pieces of wood. Completely opposite was the holographic version of the house by Dušan Borić. In the later period of explorations on the Vlasac locality, Borić constructed his version of a house on location, but it contains vertical walls which appeared much later in architecture. Some other proposed reconstructions were deemed even less possible as they included the orthogonal base or upper floor, based on the assumption that stony, garland-like reinforcements are actually remains of the former stone walls. Almost all proposed reconstructions, regardless of differences, belong to the pyramidal or tent-like type (even if they are shaped like frustum).</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>Some of the dead were buried in the houses, under the exceptionally preserved floors. They are believed to be a prominent members of the group but there are also some children skeletons.</p><br>
<p>Srejović believed that the Lepenians developed the "cult of the head", which is why all discovered sculptures are actually head portraits. The ritual burials included a curious practice of removing the skull from the head, then the mandible from the skull before they all would be buried separately. Skulls were placed in a special stone constructions. A skull would be placed on a larger stone slab and then it would be protected by the crushed stones. All separately buried skulls are male while all the mandibles are female.</p><br>
<p>They were built into the base of the houses. Best preserved is the skeleton from House 69. Because of the excellent conditions of the skeleton and its apparent height, archaeologist Aleksandar Bačkalov, who discovered it, though it was quite "handsome" or "dashing" and named it Valentino, after famous Hollywoods Latin lover, Rudolph Valentino. Bačkalov discovered it in a shallow dig which originates from the Proto-Vir, or Vir I-a period. Valentino died c. 8200 BC and architect Goran Mandić worked on his facial reconstruction. The position of the skeletons buried under the floors is such that above the genitals are widening parts of the central installation, which prompted some researches to conclude that it actually symbolizes the birth, regardless of the skeletons sex and that the posture of the skeleton, the so called "Turkish style" represents the childbirth position.</p><br>
<p>Ash also had some ritual meaning, as ceramic vessels filled with ash were also discovered.</p><br>
<h2>Sculptures</h2><br>
<p>The Lepenski Vir sculptures are numerous prehistoric figurines dating from 7000 BC found intact in the Lepenski Vir. The earliest sculptures found on the site date to the time of Lepenski Vir I-b settlement. They are present in all the following layers until the end of the distinct Lepenski Vir culture. All the sculptures were carved from round sandstone cobbles found on the river banks.</p><br>
<p>The sculptures can be separated in two distinct categories, one with simple geometric patterns and the other representing humanoid figures. The latter are the most interesting. All of these figural sculptures were modelled in a naturalistic and strongly expressionistic manner. Only the head and face of the human figures were modelled realistically, with strong brow arches, an elongated nose, and a wide, fish-like mouth. Hair, beard, arms and hands can be seen on some of the figures in a stylized form. Many fish-like features can be noticed. Along with the position which these sculptures had in the house shrine, they suggest a connection with river gods.</p><br>
<p>The sculptures were components of the house itself, as they were built into the stone flooring. They are the oldest group ("portrait") of sculptures discovered so far. Though the sculptures are no more than 60 cm in length, they are considered historically "monumental", as no older sculptures of this size are so far being discovered, and the discovered sculptures from the same period, like in Asia Minor and Palestine, are also smaller. Also unlike other sculptures from that period, which have carved noses and eyes, the ones in Lepenski Vir have mouths and ears.</p><br>
<p>Art historian and professor at the University of Belgrade said that the sculptures look like "being made by Henry Moore".</p><br>
<p>Some of the sculptures became popular due to the media attention. In their book "The Art of Lepenski Vir" from 1983, Srejović and Babović individually described some of them. Probably the best known is the Praroditeljka, or "Foremother", pictured to the right. 51 x, the image is often exploited in the media and became a symbol of Lepenski Vir. Srejović and Babović considered it "impressive", a possible embodiment of the female principle of the fishlike beings. She is thought to be equal to the opposite, male version "Danubius". Female elements and attributes appear as canonical, symmetrical, rigid and though shaped like a figure, eventually quite reduced. It has two plastic vents on the shoulders. Traces of the red coating pigment are still visible. Another sculpture is important as it is the first portrait-type sculpture bigger than a human head in real life in human history. Named Rodonačelnik, or "Progenitor", it represent a head which measures 52 x. Considered a type of totem, it is more humane than fishlike. It has been described as "mysterious and lonely". There are remnants of the red pigment on the eye bags and on the neck.</p><br>
<h2>Controversies</h2><br>
<p>Though Obrad Kujović discovered the locality first, it is Dragoslav Srejović who is today recognized as a man who discovered Lepenski Vir. In his publication "Lepenski Vir" from 1969, he mentions "a group of experts" who noticed the locality before him "at the end of the summer of 1960", but never gave their names, while he mentioned many other people who helped with the excavations. In 1979, the daily Večernje Novosti published an interview with Kujović who repeated the story how he discovered the location. He added that "for the scientific exploration and interpretation of the discovered materials" the glory rightfully belongs to Srejović, but objected that Srejović never mentioned the people who discovered it. Srejović replied that he accepts the Kujovićs claim and that it is important to know the exact date of discovery for such an important site. He added that he omitted their names as they were hired and paid (by the Institute of Archaeology) to survey the terrain. However, in 1996 a 30th anniversary of the discovery of Lepenski Vir was organized. Kujović publicly asked Srejović if he already acknowledged that the discovery happened in 1960, why he didnt organize the 35th anniversary. Srejović died later that year.</p><br>
<p>As concept of "architecturally modern" settlement and its culture seemed so disconnected from the other knowledge on the subject at the time, fringe theories on the civilization of Lepenski Vir developed. Ufologists claimed that the Lepenians were actually aliens from outer space. Such theories existed even in Russia, while one of the proponents of the ancient astronauts theory, Erich von Däniken, showed interest in the locality.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeoastronomy</h2><br>
<p>First archaeoastronomical surveys were conducted during the winter solstice in 2014. They pointed to the possibility of having an event of "double sunrise" during the summer solstice. The volcanic Treskavac hill, across the Danube from Lepenski Vir, has a rocky lump near the top and an inclination higher than the inclination of the apparent Sun&#39;s orbit. The Sun appears above the Treskavac, then goes behind the lump and reappears again. The phenomenon was observed and confirmed during the summer solstice of 2015. The entire passage, which was filmed, lasts a bit over 4 minutes. Scientific literature mentions two archaeological locations in Great Britain where the "double sunset" has been observed on the solstices, but "double sunrise" is not recorded. As the axial tilt changed since then, a geospatial analysis was conducted, using the GPS, which proved that the "double sunrise" occurred at that time, too, and that it was visible from the original location of Lepenski Vir.</p><br>
<p>The phenomenon was noticed by Pavlović and Aleksandra Bajić, which published their findings in 2016 book "The Sun of Lepenski Vir". As only the specific position of the Sun during the winter and summer solstices was important to calculate the time, as a reference point which repeats after one year, they believe that Lepenians used the "double sunrise" as a basis for some kind of a solar calendar, which they dated to 6300-6200 BC. As Lepenski Vir was a sedentary community for several millennia, Pavlović and Bajić hold that the inhabitants must have observed the phenomenon, especially at that time when people were much more perceptive of the nature around them than they are today. Even Srejović, who died in 1996 and was unaware of the phenomenon, based on the geographical configuration of the gorge said that the "dance of light and shadows occasionally reach the levels of hierophany". The terrain was further surveyed with the theodolite and the astrogeodesy analysis was conducted in 2017. The results show that the "double sunrise" was visible from every house in Lepenski Vir, without exception. Also, the axial azimuth of the houses, measured previously by Ljubinka Babović, shows 65° to 75°, so they are all facing the Treskavac hill.</p><br>
<h2>Relocation</h2><br>
<p>The Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station became operational between 1970 and 1972, when the artificial Đerdap Lake was formed. The lake was to flood the original location of the site so the almost complete site was relocated to another location. After being checked and confirmed to be "archaeologically sterile", a new location was chosen, some 100 m downstream and 30 m higher than the previous one. The access from the river is less approachable than on the original location, due to the scree accumulation on the bank and the excess dirt from the preparation of the new site. The largest part of the discovered settlement, which consists of almost all houses from the Vir I period, was relocated in 1971. The highest level of the lake is on the plaz, which is buried under 30 to 34 m of water. As the Danube now passed over the natural rocky "anchors" which previously caused it to whirl, it took only 10 years for the river to level and wash off parts of the old bank and to undermine the old location, already weakened by the archaeological excavations.</p><br>
<p>The old location of Lepenski Vir itself is 12 m below the present level of the lake, while the localities of Vlasac and Padina are 15 m and 6.5 m below, respectively. Archaeologists (Srejović, Branislav Ćirić, Milka Čanak Medić, etc.) prepared a study "Relocation project" on preserving and protecting the bank, especially preventing the landslides, but the study was mostly ignored.</p><br>
<p>The locality of Lepenski Vir was never fully excavated. Srejović himself said that there is "more of Lepenski Vir, both up and down", meaning below the Proto-Vir and further into the hinterland. The Proto-Vir layer is completely flooded, while some of the Vir I excavations weren&#39;t relocated, like the houses which occupied the most elevated section of the plateau (houses 61, 65, 66, 67), though they were still flooded. Basically, the material remains of the cultures in the Iron Gate Gorge were almost all flooded and forever lost for the scientific research.</p><br>
<h2>Assessment</h2><br>
<p>The results, published for the first time on 16 August 1967 on the press conference organized by Lazar Trifunović, radically changed the history of Europe. It was noted that the printing of some history textbooks was halted so that they can be revised. Opposing voices however, claimed that Lepenski Vir can&#39;t be dated in Mesolithic as the Europe was barely inhabited at the time and the population lived in caves and other natural shelters.</p><br>
<p>Problems with Lepenski Vir are typical for similar archaeological sites from prehistoric periods: without written evidence and absence of the wider context, the excessively broad conclusions are extrapolated from a quite narrow circle of information. The possible exlusion of the still uncovered but relevant facts, diverts the exploration of Lepenski Vir into difused directions. Classicist Milan Budimir described it as the "bold hypotheses which sheds a dubious light on the (historical) dark".</p><br>
<p>Still, Lepenski Vir is the oldest planned settlement in Europe and has a unique, trapeze-shaped houses seen nowhere else. Its culture yielded not only the first portrait sculptures in history, but also the first sculptures in sizes larger than those in real life in the history of human art. The sculptures are the largest made by humans up to that period and among the first to have carved mouth or ears. Additionally, the skeletal remains from Lepenski Vir make almost half of one of the largest Mesolithic anthropological series, which is important for the future bio-archaeological and DNA research.</p><br>
<p>Already on 26 May 1966, the State Institute for the protection of the cultural monuments protected Lepenski Vir as a cultural monument (Decision 554/1), expanding the level of protection on 3 February 1971 (Decision 01-10/21). In 1979 Lepenski Vir was declared a Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance (State Gazette, No. 14/79). Despite its immense importance, Lepenski Vir has not yet been nominated for the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List. Partially due to the bureaucracy of the state and technicalities, partially because the Museum of Lepenski Vir had to be finished first. Ristić proposed a floating, boat-museum. The problem also may be the fact that the original location of the site is flooded while the locality was elevated to the safer ground. However, the houses 61 and 65 were not moved and at the low water level, they are only 59 cm below the surface, so technically, they could be nominated for UNESCO.</p><br>
<p>Architect Branislav Krstić (1922-2016), former commissioner in UNESCO, suggested in 2010 that Lepenski Vir should be nominated together with the entire Iron Gates Gorge, as an "integral cultural and natural monument". As Krstić stated, apart from the ancient cultures, the wider area of Lepenski Vir was later part of the Roman, and later Byazntine, Danubian Limes, contains Roman and mediaeval fortresses, like Golubac Fortress or Fetislam, while the monumental Iron Gates Dam is a monument to industrialization and electrification in the 20th century. Ristić opposed this course of action, saying that the original, "crystal clear" artifacts (sculptures) should be separated from the architectural remains which were ruined, partially because of the submergence and partially because of the "catastrophic archaeological mismanaging during the 1960s excavations". He asserted that the architectural remains were frail to begin with, and that during the excavations it was only partially presented but totally destroyed during the relocation. Architect and artist Aleksandar Deroko called it the "largest cultural massacre of the 20th century" and said that "none of the world renown scientists will be able to explore the site anymore". The elevated and reconstructed section in the museum was to be relocated by the project of Milorad Medić, which envisioned the relopcation of the entire floors in the steel frames. The frail floors crumbled into the pieces and dust, so they were moved in parts and them reassembled in the museum. Ristić believes that the focus should be on the sculptures, which are fully preserved: "Just like the cave paintings (in Lascaux) exposed the soul of the Paleolithic man from 20,000-30,000 years ago, so the pebble sculpting (in Lepenski Vir) exposed the soul of the Mesolithic man from 7,000-9,000 years ago", accusing the museum of being an "incomplete forgery...that has neither the soul nor the science, and has no purpose". He concludes that Lepenski Vir, due to its importance, deserves a monumental mark, a counterpart to the monumental, cliff sculpture of the face of Decebalus, leader of the Dacians from the 1st century. Serbian counterpart should be a gigantic face from the Lepenian sculptures, which would appear to arise out of the Danube. He proposed the Lepena Rock, halfway between Lepenski Vir and Vlasac.</p><br>
<p>Valley of the Ten Peaks  is a valley in Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada, which is crowned by ten notable peaks and also includes Moraine Lake. The valley can be reached by following the Moraine Lake road near Lake Louise. The ten peaks were originally named by Samuel Allen, an early explorer of the region, who simply referred to them by using the numerals from one to ten in the Stoney First Nations Language. He may have learned the terms from his Native American guides, who helped him with the horses. The Nakoda–also known as the Stoney Indians–is a tribe whose culture and dialect are closely related to that of the Assiniboine First Nation, from whom they are believed to have separated in the mid-1700s, and who roamed large parts of the prairies and mountains of western Alberta well into British Columbia. The secluded Valley of the Ten Peaks was part of their original homeland. Gradually, though, all but three of the mountains were renamed in honour of noteworthy individuals, including Allen himself.</p><br>
<p>Mount Hungabee was not included in the original peak list by Allen, even though it is higher than Wenkchemna Peak, the latter of which is really an extension of Hungabee.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>The ten peaks, in order of how they are numbered from east to west, are:</p><br>
<p>There are other peaks visible from within the valley as well, including Mount Temple, Mount Babel and Eiffel Peak. Fay Glacier is developed between Mount Babel, Mount Fay, Mount Little and Mount Bowlen.</p><br>
<p>The Valley of the Ten Peaks was featured on the reverse side of the 1969 and 1979 issues of the Canadian twenty dollar bill.</p><br>
<p>The Neil Colgan Hut, a mountaineering destination, can be reached in 8 to 12 hours climbing the Perren Route from Moraine Lake.</p><br>
<p>Tulpehocken Creek is a 39.5 mi tributary of the Schuylkill River in southeastern Pennsylvania in the United States, and during the American Canal Age, once provided nearly half the length of the Union Canal linking the port of Philadelphia, the largest American city and the other communities of Delaware Valley with the Susquehanna basin and the Pennsylvania Canal System connecting the Eastern seaboard to Lake Erie and the new settlements of the Northwest Territory via the Allegheny, Monongahela. and Ohio Rivers at Pittsburgh.</p><br>
<p>An important transportation route in the early United States, the creek drains a limestone hill country area of Berks County south of the Appalachian Mountains and is considered one of the finest trout streams in southeastern Pennsylvania. The valley of the creek was known in colonial times as the Tulpehocken, stretching west of Reading. It was inhabited by the Lenape and was a destination for early German-speaking settlers. The name comes from a Lenape word Tulpewikaki, meaning "land of turtles". It is a designated Pennsylvania Scenic River.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Tulpehocken Creek rises in eastern Lebanon County, Pennsylvania, and flows generally east, in a winding course, through Myerstown, entering Berks County, passing north of Womelsdorf. At Womelsdorf it turns abruptly north, then flows southeast, through the Blue Marsh Lake reservoir and joins the Schuylkill at Reading.</p><br>
<p>In the 1720s, the creek&#39;s valley, like many in those days of dependence upon water power with a poor transportation infrastructure system, was a destination for early Swiss and Palatine settlers, who used the creek for extensive milling operations. In the 19th century, as it had for the light canoes of the Susquehannock and Delaware peoples, it provided an important early transportation route with the building in 1828 of the Union Canal along the river, connecting from its headwaters to those of Quittapahilla Creek in Lebanon County.</p><br>
<p>The proposed canal, again surveyed in the 1790s taken together with the Schuylkill Canal (1822) running W-E from Reading to Philadelphia (allowing large shipments of coal to Philadelphia), provided the only water route between the Susquehanna River and the Delaware River. Using the canal, manufacturies in Philadelphia and New Jersey could ship goods west to the newly settled lands west of the gaps of the Allegheny, out to the midwest. Bundled in as part of the visionary Main Line of Public Works omnibus legislation, the improvements along Tulpehocken Creek by engineering navigations provided nearly half the length of the final Union Canal.</p><br>
<p>The creek is impounded for flood control above Reading by the earthen Blue Marsh Dam (see Blue Marsh State Park) completed in 1979 by the USA Army Corps of Engineers to form the Blue Marsh Lake reservoir. The bottom-release design of the dam allows for the discharge of a cold water at a constant temperature, resulting in an ideal habitat for rainbow trout and brown trout, which are stocked annually in the stream.</p><br>
<p>The Makarora River is in the Otago region of the South Island of New Zealand.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The headwaters are in Mount Aspiring National Park, on the eastern flanks of the Southern Alps near Haast Pass, which is the saddle between the Makarora and Haast River valleys. The Makarora River flows south into the northern end of Lake Wanaka after passing the small community of Makarora. The river attracts some recreational fishing, jetboating and kayaking. Rainbow and brown trout migrate from Lake Wanaka up the river and its tributaries to spawn, mainly in autumn and winter.</p><br>
<p>State Highway 6 follows the Makarora River for the majority of its course from just south of Haast Pass. A popular short walk leads to its confluence with the Blue River, at the aptly named Blue Pools.</p><br>
<h2>Landslide</h2><br>
<p>In September 2007 a landslide in the Young River valley blocked off the corresponding stream. Young River is a tributary to Makarora River. The landslide created a new lake. The lake appears to be permanent.</p><br>
<p>Durrington Walls is the site of a large Neolithic settlement and later henge enclosure located in the Stonehenge World Heritage Site. It lies 2 mi north-east of Stonehenge in the parish of Durrington, just north of Amesbury.</p><br>
<p>Between 2004 and 2006, excavations on the site by a team led by the University of Sheffield revealed seven houses. It has been suggested that the settlement may have originally had up to 1000 houses and perhaps 4,000 people, if the entire enclosed area was used. The period of settlement was probably short, between 15 and 45 years starting sometime between 2525 and 2470 BC.</p><br>
<p>It may have been the largest village in northern Europe for a brief period. At 500 m in diameter, the henge is the largest in Britain and recent evidence suggests that it was a complementary monument to Stonehenge.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name comes from the civil parish in which the site is located – Durrington, meaning "the farm of doers people" (doer-deer, ing-people/tribe, tun-farm/settlement), and the large henge banks that surround it. The "Dur" prefix is commonly found in this region of England; the Durotriges Celtic tribe inhabited this area before their defeat by the Romans in the mid first-century A.D. Also, Dorchester was originally Durnovaria, and smaller cities (e.g., Durweston) and locations (e.g., Durborough Farm) are found in this region.</p><br>
<h2>Context</h2><br>
<p>What visibly remains of Durrington Walls today is the walls of the henge monument – in fact the eroded remains of the inner slope of the bank and the outer slope of the internal ditch. This now appears as a ridge surrounding a central basin. On the eastern side the separate ditch and bank are much more discernible although badly eroded by ploughing. Originally the ditch was some 5.5 m deep, 7 m wide at its bottom and 18 m wide at the top. The bank was in some areas 30 m wide. There were two entrances through the bank and ditch – at the north western and south eastern ends. There may also have been an entrance to the south and the north east, although these may have been deliberately blocked. The henge enclosed several timber circles and smaller enclosures – not all of which have been excavated. Several Neolithic house floors have been found next to and under the eastern bank of the henge. Their density suggests that there was a very large village on the sloping river bank on this side.</p><br>
<p>The henge sits on high ground that slopes south east toward a bend in the River Avon, and is thus considerably higher at its north western side than at its south eastern edge. The south eastern entrance is roughly 60 m from the riverbank.</p><br>
<p>The henge has two roads passing through it – an old toll road, and a modern banked road constructed in 1967. In the past military barracks were constructed at the north eastern end of the henge, and some houses are constructed on the western bank. The land on the western side of the toll road is owned by the National Trust, forming part of its Stonehenge Landscape property. It has free entry.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Although there is evidence of some early Neolithic activity at the site, most of the structures seem to have been built in the late Neolithic/early Bronze Age. At some point c. 2600 BC, a large timber circle was constructed. It is now known as the Southern Circle. The circle was oriented southeast towards the sunrise on the midwinter solstice and consisted of four large concentric circles of postholes, which would have held extremely large standing timbers. A paved avenue was also constructed on a slightly different alignment – towards the sunset on the summer solstice – that led to the River Avon. This feature is similar to the Stonehenge Avenue. A large timber post lay on this orientation, about as far away from the circle as the Heelstone is from Stonehenge.</p><br>
<p>At a similar time, but probably after the circle and avenue were constructed, a village began to develop around the site. Excavations have revealed seven Neolithic house floors on the eastern side of the bank. Some of these floors were located underneath the henge bank, suggesting that settlement came first. The density of some of the houses suggests that there are many more house floors under the field east of the henge, along the banks of the River Avon. One of the homes excavated showed evidence of a cobb wall and its own ancillary building, and was very similar in layout to a house at Skara Brae in Orkney. The other houses seem to have had simple wattle and daub walls. Evidence also suggests that the houses continued to the north of the site.</p><br>
<p>It is probable that the village surrounded a large, circular, open area that contained the Southern Circle and several smaller enclosures. A geophysical survey of the area 200 metres west of the Southern Circle, known as the western enclosures, showed "a group of at least six penannular structures...arranged around a terrace overlooking the timber circle and the eastern entrance". An excavation revealed two houses set within timber palisades and ditched enclosures that appear to have been kept clean. These may have held elite occupants or might have been shrines, cult-houses or spirit lodges. Julian Thomas notes that " Overall, the evidence from the internal structures at Durrington Walls does not show that this was a ‘ritual site’, for there is no such thing. There are simply sites at which ritual has taken place, and at Durrington a variety of acts of various degrees of ritualization, from formal rites to habitual practices, were woven into a complicated history, marking moments of crisis, transformation, and daily routine."</p><br>
<p>Sometime later, perhaps 200 years after the circle was first constructed, another two concentric rings were added, and the henge enclosure was constructed. A ditch some 5.5 m deep was dug, and the earth used to create a large outer bank some 30 m wide and presumably several metres high. Several features of the village, including houses and midden pits, were built over. The henge seems to have been built in one continuous operation, not in phases, as there is no evidence of soil or turf developing in the bank. The ditch also seems to have been dug in sections, perhaps by different groups of labourers. Estimates of the number of people required to create the henge vary from 4000 – 6000. At a similar time, another large timber circle and henge were created immediately south at Woodhenge.</p><br>
<p>It is unknown when the site fell out of use. It was re-occupied during the Iron Age, when a settlement and field system was established inside the henge. A large drainage ditch was also dug above the north eastern entrance, possibly to complement the field system.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations and theories</h2><br>
<p>Richard Colt Hoare noted Durrington Walls in 1810, and observed that centuries of agriculture had left "its form much mutilated". Geoffrey Wainwright excavated the route of the new A345 in 1966. He discovered the southern timber circle as well as a smaller one slightly north of it. Since 2003 the Stonehenge Riverside Project, led by Mike Parker Pearson, has carried out annual excavations at Durrington Walls. It identified the Neolithic village and avenue to the river.</p><br>
<p>Radiocarbon dates of approximately 2600 BC are roughly contemporary with the earliest stone phase at Stonehenge. It is likely that the builders of the stone monument lived here. Mike Parker Pearson believes that Durrington Walls was a complementary structure to Stonehenge, as evidenced by the similar solstice alignments. He suggests that the timber circle at Durrington Walls represented life and a land of the living, whilst Stonehenge and the down around it, encircled by burial mounds, represented a land of the dead. The two were connected by the River Avon and their respective avenues. A ceremonial procession route from one to the other represented the transition from life to death.</p><br>
<p>Geoff Wainwright and Timothy Darvill have contested Parker Pearson’s theories, however; they suggest that Stonehenge was a monument to healing and that connections between the two monuments were unlikely.</p><br>
<p>In 2015 an announcement was made by The Stonehenge Hidden Landscapes Project that a geophysical survey showed evidence of another monument consisting of up to 90 standing stones buried under Durrington Walls. In August 2016 a joint project excavation, directed by Mike Parker Pearson of the Stonehenge Riverside Project and by members of the Stonehenge Hidden Landscapes Project, revealed that there are no buried standing stones at Durrington Walls. The ground-penetrating radar results had actually revealed a circle of enormous post-holes, not buried stones, beneath the henge bank which had been later filled with chalk rubble. A National Trust archaeologist, Dr. Nicola Snashall, suggested that as soon as the builders of Stonehenge abandoned their settlement on the site, a large timber monument was constructed and that later "For some strange reason they took the timbers out and put up the enormous bank and ditch that we see today."</p><br>
<p>Mount Damavand , a potentially active volcano, is a stratovolcano which is the highest peak in Iran and the Middle East, and the highest volcano in Asia; the Kunlun Volcanic Group in Tibet is higher than Damāvand, but are not considered to be volcanic mountains.</p><br>
<p>Damāvand has a special place in Persian mythology and folklore. It is in the middle of the Alborz range, adjacent to Varārū, Sesang, Gol-e Zard, and Mīānrūd. It is near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, in Amol County, Mazandaran Province, 66 kilometres (41 miles) northeast of the city of Tehran.</p><br>
<p>Mount Damāvand is the 12th most prominent peak in the world, and the third most prominent in Asia after Mount Everest and Puncak Jaya. It is the highest volcanic mountain in Asia, and part of the Volcanic Seven Summits mountaineering challenge.</p><br>
<h2>Symbolism and mythology</h2><br>
<p>Damavand is a significant mountain in Persian mythology. It is the symbol of Iranian resistance against despotism and foreign rule in Persian poetry and literature. In Zoroastrian texts and mythology, the three-headed dragon Aži Dahāka was chained within Mount Damāvand, there to remain until the end of the world. In a later version of the same legend, the tyrant Zahhāk was also chained in a cave somewhere in Mount Damāvand after being defeated by Kāveh and Fereydūn. Persian poet Ferdowsi depicts this event in his masterpiece, the Shahnameh:</p><br>
<p>بیاورد ضحاک را چون نوند</p><br>
<p>به کوه دماوند کردش ببند</p><br>
<p>He brought Zahhak like a horse to mount Damavand,</p><br>
<p>And tied him at the peak tight and bound</p><br>
<p>The mountain is said to hold magical powers in the Shahnameh. Damāvand has also been named in the Iranian legend of Arash (as recounted by Bal&#39;ami) as the location from which the hero shot his magical arrow to mark the border of Iran, during the border dispute between Iran and Turan.</p><br>
<p>The poem Damāvand by Mohammad Taqī Bahār is also one fine example of the mountain&#39;s significance in Persian literature. The first verse of this poem reads:</p><br>
<p>ای دیو سپید پای در بند</p><br>
<p>Ey dīve sepīde pāī dar band,</p><br>
<p>Oh white giant with feet in chains</p><br>
<p>ای گنبد گیتی، ای دماوند</p><br>
<p>Ey gonbade gītī, ay Damāvand</p><br>
<p>Oh dome of the world, Oh Mount Damāvand</p><br>
<p>Mount Damavand is depicted on the reverse of the Iranian 10,000 rials banknote.</p><br>
<p>The origins and meaning of the word "Damavand" is unclear, yet some prominent researchers have speculated that it probably means "The mountain from which smoke and ash arises", alluding to the volcanic nature of the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Damavand first erupted in the Pleistocene almost 1.78 million years ago. After several known eruptions around 600,000 and 280,000 years ago, its last eruption was around 5300 BC in the Holocene. Its steep cone is formed of ash and lava flows mainly of trachyte, andesite and basalt. The Quaternary lavas are directly on the Jurassic sediments. The volcano is crowned by a small crater with sulfuric deposits. There are also fumaroles, hot springs, and mineral deposits of travertine. Mount Damavand could be considered as a potentially active volcano, because there are fumaroles near the summit crater emitting sulfur, which were known to be active on July 6, 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Thermal springs</h2><br>
<p>Mineral hot springs are mainly located on the volcano&#39;s flanks and at the base, giving evidence of volcanic heat comparatively near the surface of the earth. While no historic eruptions have been recorded, hot springs at the base and on the flanks, and fumaroles and solfatara near the summit, indicate a hot or cooling magma body still present beneath the volcano.</p><br>
<p>The most important of these hot springs are located in Abe Garm Larijan in a village by the name Larijan in the district of Larijan in Lar Valley. The water from this spring is useful in the treatment of chronic wounds and skin diseases. Near these springs there are public baths with small pools for public use.</p><br>
<h2>Routes to the summit</h2><br>
<p>The best major settlement for mountain climbers is the new Iranian Mountain Federation Camp in the village of Polour, located on the south of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>There are at least 16 known routes to the summit, with varying levels of difficulty. Some of them are very dangerous and require rock climbing. The most popular route is the Southern Route which has step stamps and a camp midway called Bargah Sevom Camp/Shelter at 4220 m (about 13,845 ft). The longest route is the Northeastern and it takes two whole days to reach the summit starting from downhill village of Nāndal and a night stay at Takht-e Fereydoun (elevation 4300 m - about 13,000 ft), a two-story shelter. The western route is famous for its sunset view. Sīmorgh shelter in this route at 4100 m (about 13,500 ft) is a newly constructed shelter with two stories. There is a frozen waterfall/Icefall (Persian name Ābshār Yakhī) about 12 m tall and the elevation of 5100 m is the highest fall in Iran and Middle East.</p><br>
<h2>Geographical location</h2><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<h3>Fish</h3><br>
<p>Damavand rivers and slopes are famous for the beautiful Brown Trout (Salmo trutta),</p><br>
<h3>Mammals</h3><br>
<p>Armenian mouflon (Ovis orientalis) and wild goat (Capra aegagrus) live in the region of Damavand Mts. Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) and Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) live in this region. Some smaller mammals are the snow vole (Chionomys nivalis), mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus bailwardi) and Afghan pika (Ochoton rufescens).</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The very attractive and unreachable Caspian snowcock (Tetraogallus caspius) lives at high altitudes. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) breeds in this area. Griffon vultures (Gyps fulvus) are common. Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) has a high population and nests between stone and shrubs. Red-fronted serin (Serinus pusillus), linnet (Carduelis cannabina), snow finch (Montifringilla nivalis), rock sparrow (Petronia petronia), rock bunting (Emberiza cia) and horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) are native; in winter they come to the lower hill sides. In each spring wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe), rock thrush (Monticola saxatilis), and nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) come from Africa for breeding. Grey-necked bunting (Emberiza buchanani), black-headed bunting (Emberiza melanocephala) and common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus) come from India.</p><br>
<h3>Reptiles and amphibians</h3><br>
<p>Lots of marsh frogs (Rana ridibunda) live in Lar riversides. Meadow viper (Vipera ursinii), blunt-nosed viper (Macrovipera lebetina), Iranian valley viper (Vipera latifii) and Caucasian agama (Laudakia caucasia) are among the reptiles of this mountainous region.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>On the southern slope of Damavand, there are remnants of Wild Pistachia Trees (Pistacia atlantica); In its riversides different kinds of Salix trees like Willow (Salix acomphylla) and Oleaster (Elaeagnus angustifolia) are found. Greek Juniper (Juniperus excelsa) is common all over the higher altitudes. On Northern slopes, because of higher humidity, there are wild oak, beech and hazel trees like: Persian Oak (Quercus macranthera), Eastern Hornbean (Carpinus orientalis), and Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis). There are also many beautiful wild flowers like: Mountain Tulip (Tulipa montana) and Stone cress (Aethionema grandiflorum). At higher altitudes, shrubs tend to be sphere and cushion like, examples are: Astragalus species (like Astragalus microcephalus), Mountain Sainfoin (Onobrychis cornuta) and Prickly (Acantholimon erinaceum); Different kinds of grasses between them complete this alpine scene.</p><br>
<p>Iris barnumiae demawendica (formerly Iris demawendica), is found and named after the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Nomination as National Heritage Site</h2><br>
<p>An anthropologist of Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department, Touba Osanlou, has said that a proposal has been made by a group of Iranian mountaineers to register the highest peak in the Middle East, Mount Damavand as a national heritage site.</p><br>
<p>Mazandaran Cultural Heritage and Tourism Department has accepted the proposal, the Persian daily Jam-e Jam reported.</p><br>
<p>Osanlou noted that the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization is presently in the process of renaming an upcoming ancient festivity after Mount Damavand.</p><br>
<p>"We have proposed Tirgan Festivity, Tabari Nowruz, to be named as Damavand National Day," she added.</p><br>
<p>Tirgan Festivity is held in Amol County&#39;s Rineh region in Mazandaran province.</p><br>
<p>Panorama of Mount Damavand</p><br>
<p>The Grossglockner , the highest mountain in Austria and the highest mountain in the Alps east of the Brenner Pass. It is part of the larger Glockner Group of the Hohe Tauern range, situated along the main ridge of the Central Eastern Alps and the Alpine divide. The Pasterze, Austrias most extended glacier, lies on the Grossglockners eastern slope.</p><br>
<p>The characteristic pyramid-shaped peak actually consists of two pinnacles, the Grossglockner and the Kleinglockner (3,770 m, from German: gross, "big", klein, "small"), separated by the Glocknerscharte col.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Glocknerer is first documented in a 1561 map designed by the Viennese cartographer Wolfgang Lazius. The denotation Glogger is mentioned a 1583 description of the Tyrolean Kals legal district, then referring to the whole ridge south of the Alpine main chain. In the 1760s, the Atlas Tyrolensis listed a Glockner Berg, the prefix Gross- ("great") is not mentioned before the first expedition in 1799.</p><br>
<p>According to the scholar Belsazar Hacquet (1735–1815), Glockner is possibly derived from German: Glocke ("bell"), referring to the mountain&#39;s characteristic shape. It may also be a Germanised version of the Alpine Slavic word Klek ("mountain"), as maintained in the Slovene name Veliki Klek.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Location and area</h3><br>
<p>The Grossglockner lies on the border between the Austrian states of Carinthia and Tyrol (East Tyrol). The peak is part of the Glocknerkamm ridge in the Glockner Group that branches off the main chain of the Alps at Mt. Eiskögele, heading in a southeasterly direction and forming the boundary between the East Tyrolean municipality of Kals am Großglockner, about 8 km in the southwest at 1,324 m, and Carinthian Heiligenblut, about 12 km in the northeast at 1,291 m. This boundary is also the watershed between the Kals Valley and its Teischnitz and Ködnitz side valleys on the Tyrolean side and the Möll Valley with the Pasterze glacier on the Carinthian side. The region around the mountain has formed part of the Grossglockner-Pasterze special protected area within the High Tauern National Park since 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Glockner is the highest mountain in the Alps east of the Ortler range, about 175 km away, and, after Mont Blanc, has the second greatest topographic isolation of all mountains in the Alps. Even its topographic prominence, at 2,424 m, is the second highest after Mont Blanc in the entire Alps (see the list of Alpine peaks by prominence). That makes it one of the most independent peaks in the Alps. The view from the Grossglockner summit is one of the farthest of all mountains in the Eastern Alps. It ranges out to 220 km or, taking account of atmospheric refraction, almost 240 km. Its view over more than 150,000 km&sup2; of the earth&#39;s surface reaches as far as the Upper Swabian Plateau in the northwest, to Regensburg and the peaks of the Bohemian Forest in the north, to Mt. Ortler in the west, to the Padan Plain in the south, and to Mt. Triglav and the Totes Gebirge range in the east.</p><br>
<h3>Topography</h3><br>
<p>The Grossglockner rock summit, due to its high Alpine, heavily glaciated appearance, is often compared to the mountains of the Western Alps. Together with the Kleinglockner to the southeast it forms a distinctive double peak. There are differing views in the literature as to whether the Kleinglockner is a subpeak or a separate main summit. Due to its low topographic prominence and isolation as well as its close links in climbing history, it is counted as part of that of the Grossglockner in historic publications; however, in view of its separate climbing routes it is counted as an independent peak in mountaineering literature.</p><br>
<p>The Obere Glocknerscharte between the two peaks, at 3,766 m, is the highest col in Austria, from which a couloir up to 55° in gradient and 600 m in altitude descends down to the Glocknerkees glacier, called Pallavicinirinne after the Austrian mountaineer Alfred von Pallavicini (1848–1886). It runs northeastwards and borders on the Northeast and North Faces of the Grossglockner. The latter faces are bounded by the Northwest Ridge, part of the main Glockner crest, which runs over the Grögerschneid, 3,660 m, and the ridge elevations of Glocknerhorn, 3,680 m, and Teufelshorn, 3,677 m, to the Untere Glocknerscharte, 3,598 m, which connects to the 3,721 m high Glocknerwand.</p><br>
<p>A prominent ridge, the Stüdlgrat, named after the Prague Alpinist Johann Stüdl (1839–1925), runs from the Grossglockner away to the southwest. Together with its extension, the Luisengrat, it separates the West Face and the Teischnitzkees glacier at its foot from the South Face and its Ködnitzkees glacier. A couloir known as the Pillwaxrinne crosses the South Face below the Obere Glocknerscharte; most of the South Face lies east of this gully below the Kleinglockner. The east side of the Kleinglockner, the Glocknerleitl, is glaciated to just below the summit and is continued by the Kleinglocknerkees and Hofmannskees before reaching the Pasterze.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the climbs started with French-born natural scientist Belsazar Hacquet, from 1773 professor of anatomy at the Academy of Ljubljana. He travelled the Eastern Alps from 1779 to 1781 and published an itinerary in 1783, describing the Glokner mountain and stating that it had not been climbed yet. He estimated the mountain&#39;s height with converted 3,793 m and left an engraving illustrating Grossglockner and Pasterze, the first known depiction of the mountain.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>Inspired by Hacquet&#39;s book and the first ascent of the Mont Blanc in 1786, the Gurk prince-bishop Count Franz Xaver of Salm (1749–1822) together with his vicar general Sigismund Ernst Hohenwart (1745–1825) and Baron Franz Xaver von Wulfen (1728–1805) started efforts for a Grossglockner expedition. They engaged two peasants from Heiligenblut as mountain guides to do the first explorations for an ascent through the Leitertal valley, which is the side of Grossglockner with the least ice (people feared glaciers in these times). These valiant men, called "Glockners" in the records, did more than they were ordered to do - and probably reached the Kleinglockner summit on 23 July 1799.</p><br>
<p>One month later the bishops expedition started: a mountain hut (the first Salm Hut) had been built and the path in the Leitertal valley was prepared so that the bishop could use a horse to reach it. 30 people, among them Salm, Hohenwart and Wulfen, were part of the expedition. They suffered with bad weather and a first effort failed, but on 25 August 1799 Hohenwart and at least four other people, including the two "Glockners", reached - again - the Kleinglockner, where they installed one of the first summit crosses (one of the main goals of the church expedition). Hohenwarts reports did not tell clearly that they had not touched the highest point but Bishop Salm (who had reached the Adlersruhe rock at 3,454 m) was informed. Dissatisfied, he invited another, even bigger expedition the next year.</p><br>
<p>On 28 July 1800, 62 people, among them the pedagogue Franz Michael Vierthaler and the botanist David Heinrich Hoppe, started again into the Leitertal valley. Four peasants and carpenters (the "Glockners" and two others who are not known) did a track in the snow, had installed fixed ropes at some steeper sections up to the end of the Glocknerleitl, and even built a second refuge, called Hohenwarte Hut. The vanguard reached the Kleinglockner peak, however, according to the expedition records by the Dellach priest Franz Joseph Horasch (Orasch), only the four guides and Mathias Hautzendorfer, the local priest of the Rangersdorf parish, were able to cross the Obere Glocknerscharte and climb the Grossglockner summit. Hautzendorfer had to be persuaded to venture the step and administered the last rites in advance.</p><br>
<p>The two "Glockners" are usually identified as the brothers Joseph (Sepp) and Martin Klotz, however, this surname is not listed in the Heiligenblut parish register. A local peasant named Sepp Hoysen is documented as a member of the second Grossglockner expedition in 1802, and the surveyor Ulrich Schiegg mentioned one Martin Reicher as "Glockner" guide. The peasants and several other members of the expedition (among them Schiegg and his young apprentice Valentin Stanič, who climbed Mt. Watzmann for the first time some weeks later) did the ascent again the next day and finally installed the summit cross and a barometer on the Grossglockner summit.</p><br>
<h3>Development</h3><br>
<p>Bishop Salm undertook two more ascents in 1802 (with Hohenwart reaching the summit) and in 1806, however, he himself never climbed beyond the Adlersruhe rock. The climbing of the Grossglockner was also described by the botanist Josef August Schultes, who explored the massif together with Count Apponyi in 1802. No further ascents were made during the Napoleonic Wars, the huts decayed and were plundered by locals. In the following Vormärz era, however, the mountain became a popular venue for Alpinists like Hermann and Adolf Schlagintweit, who all followed the route of the first ascent.</p><br>
<p>By the mid 19th century, the developing Alpine tourism began to alter the traditional agriculture economy in the Heiligenblut area. Therefore, the people of Kals tried to lay out a straight ascent from the western side, which however was not reached until Julius von Payer explored the ridge between Glöcknerleitl and Ködnitzkees in 1863. Johann Stüdl had a via ferrata erected along the southwestern ridge the next year and the Stüdlhütte erected at its foot in 1868. Already in 1869, most expeditions to the summit started in Kals. The first winter ascent of the Grossglockner was made on January 2, 1875 by William Adolf Baillie Grohman, a member of the Alpine Club. In 1876 Count Pallavicini and his guide Hans Tribusser undertook the first expedition up the steep glaciated Northeast Face, chopping 2,500 steps into the Pallavicinirinne in an ice climbing master stroke not repeated for 23 years.</p><br>
<p>In 1879 Count Pallavicini dedicated a new iron summit cross on the occasion of the silver wedding of Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria and Empress Elisabeth; both had visited Heiligenblut and walked to the present-day Franz-Josefs-Höhe viewpoint in 1865. The cross was installed on 2 October 1880. Pallavicini also had the Archduke John Hut erected at the former Adlersruhe resting place of Bishop Salm, today the highest situated mountain hut in Austria. The Austrian Alpine Club built the new Salmhütte and the Glocknerhaus along the alpine route from Heiligenblut.</p><br>
<p>A first ascent by skiing was made in 1909 and the circumnavigation of the massif soon became a popular ski mountaineering tour. The Grossglockner became Austria&#39;s highest mountain, when the South Tyrolean Ortler region had to be ceded to the Kingdom of Italy according to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain, which promoted its reputation as a tourist attraction.</p><br>
<h2>High Alpine Road</h2><br>
<p>Mass tourism was decisively promoted by the scenic High Alpine Road (Großglockner-Hochalpenstraße) running from Heiligenblut to Bruck in Salzburg with a branch-off to the Franz-Josefs-Höhe viewpoint. It was built across the historic Hochtor Pass of the Alpine divide between 1930 and 1935 according to plans designed by engineer Franz Wallack. The pass road, Austria&#39;s highest, reaches 2,576 m, and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country (second after Schönbrunn Palace) with about 270,000 vehicles and 900,000 visitors every year, about 50 million since its opening.</p><br>
<p>The Illinizas are a pair of volcanic mountains that are located to the south of Quito, Ecuador. They are located in the Illinizas Ecological Reserve . These twin mountains are separated by a saddle that is about a kilometer long. The peaks are among the highest in Ecuador, with Illiniza Sur standing slightly taller than Illiniza Norte, its northern counterpart, at 5248 metres and 5126 metres respectively.</p><br>
<p>Most guidebooks (for example, Lonely Planet Ecuador, Ecuador: A Climbing Guide) spell the mountain with only one "l" as in Iliniza. The name Illinizas is derived from the Kunza words for "masculine hill."</p><br>
<p>Whilst Illiniza Sur (the southern peak) is a more difficult climb due to its glacial nature, Illiniza Norte requires little or no climbing expertise, and may be climbed as a trekking peak. A guide is still recommended, however, as the path becomes hard to navigate as it approaches the summit.</p><br>
<p>The Illinizas are excellent mountains for acclimatization to altitude, and are frequently used as a preparatory climb to higher peaks such as Cotopaxi, Chimborazo and Cayambe.</p><br>
<p>There is a rustic refuge located between the north and south peaks. It can be reached in one hour by car from El Chaupi, followed by a three-hour climb. The refuge has gas stoves, pots and pans and bunk beds. It is necessary to bring warm sleeping bags and food, but water is available to be boiled.</p><br>
<p>The Englishman Edward Whymper tried and failed twice to make the first ascent of Iliniza Sur. It was climbed for the first time in 1880 by his two Swiss guides Jean-Antoine Carrel and Louis Carrel. The first ascent of Iliniza Norte was made in 1912 by the Ecuadorians Nicolás Martínez and Alejandro Villavicencio.</p><br>
<p>Hubbard Glacier is a glacier located in eastern Alaska and part of Yukon, Canada, and named after Gardiner Hubbard.</p><br>
<p>The longest source for Hubbard Glacier originates 122 km from its snout and is located at about 61&deg;00&prime;N latitude, 140&deg;09&prime;W longitude, approximately 8 km west of Mount Walsh with an elevation around 11,000 ft. A shorter tributary glacier begins at the easternmost summit on the Mount Logan ridge at about 18,300 ft at about 60&deg;35&prime;0&Prime;N latitude, 140&deg;22&prime;40&Prime;W longitude.</p><br>
<p>Before it reaches the sea, Hubbard is joined by the Valerie Glacier to the west, which, through forward surges of its own ice, has contributed to the advance of the ice flow that experts believe will eventually dam the Russell Fjord from Disenchantment Bay waters.</p><br>
<p>The Hubbard Glacier ice margin has continued to advance for about a century. In May 1986, the Hubbard Glacier surged forward, blocking the outlet of Russell Fjord and creating "Russell Lake". All that summer, the new lake filled with runoff; its water level rose 25 m, and the decrease in salinity threatened its sea life.</p><br>
<p>Around midnight on October 8, the dam began to give way. In the next 24 hours, an estimated 5.3 km3 of water gushed through the gap, and the fjord was reconnected to the ocean at its previous level. This was the second largest glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) in recorded history, and had the equivalent flow of about 35 Niagara Falls.</p><br>
<p>In spring 2002, the glacier again approached Bert Point. It pushed a terminal moraine ahead of its face and closed the opening again in July. On August 14, the terminal moraine was washed away after rains had raised the water level behind the dam it formed to 18 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The fjord could become dammed again, and perhaps permanently. If this happens, the fjord could overflow its southern banks and drain through the Situk River instead, threatening trout habitat and a local airport.</p><br>
<p>It takes about 400 years for ice to traverse the length of the glacier, meaning that the ice at the foot of the glacier is about 400 years old. The glacier routinely calves off icebergs the size of a ten-story building. Where the glacier meets the bay, most of the ice is below the waterline, and newly calved icebergs can shoot up quite dramatically, so that ships must keep their distance from the edge of the glacier in Disenchantment Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Cited references</h2><br>
<p>Branciforte, originally named Villa de Branciforte, was the last of only three secular pueblos founded by the Spanish colonial government of Alta California. The pueblo was established in 1797 on the eastern bluff of the San Lorenzo River, facing Mission Santa Cruz on the west side of the river. The pueblo never prospered, and the area was annexed into the city of Santa Cruz, California in 1905.</p><br>
<p>The present day Branciforte Small Schools Campus (BSSC) building is located at what was the center of the Villa de Branciforte. A California State historical marker, number 469, is located outside of the building, too, at the corner of Water Street and Branciforte Avenue.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Villa de Branciforte was founded under the direction of California Governor Diego de Borica in memory of a Viceroy of New Spain, Miguel de la Grúa Talamanca, 1st Marquis of Branciforte, and was founded as part of Spain&#39;s strategy to protect upper California against other European countries such as Russia, England, and France. Its original civilian population was not bound to the church or the military. Unlike the Spanish missions, the villa was secular.</p><br>
<p>From its very inception in 1797 the Villa met with great obstacles. The funds were not adequate, and the enterprise failed to attract any retired soldiers. In their stead, a motley group of convicts who were banished from New Spain formed the initial group of colonists, and although the missionaries at Mission Santa Cruz protested bitterly against this pueblo being situated so close to their domain, the town received official backing.</p><br>
<p>The first eight settlers came from Guadalajara, Jalisco, New Spain (Spanish colonial Mexico). They found nothing of what they had been promised. Expecting to find the town already built to accommodate them, they found they had to build their own rough dwellings with little tools or provisions. In the end the Villa de Branciforte never resembled the neatly laid out plans for streets and buildings its planners envisioned. Furthermore, it never lived up to its expectations, and in 1802, the town itself lost the support of the Crown, and supplies ceased to arrive.</p><br>
<p>In 1803, about five years after the villa was established the settlers attempted to establish a government by electing an alcalde or municipal magistrate. This election was one of the first elections ever held in Alta California. After this, the citizens of the Villa de Branciforte began to spread over the country.</p><br>
<p>Ever since the first days, many of its residents, whom the narratives and chronicles denounce as "lazy" and prone to vices and crime, decided to move to other, more prosperous settlements like the Pueblo of San José. There were also constant problems with the missionaries at the adjacent Mission Santa Cruz over grazing rights, and the corrupting influence of the settlers on the neophytes at the Mission. For the first few years the population actually declined.</p><br>
<p>In 1818, when the pirate Hippolyte de Bouchard threatened to attack the California coast in support of the independence struggles raging in the Americas, the residents of Branciforte were reluctantly called upon to defend the Mission against sacking while the padres and neophytes took flight to other Missions further inland. When Bouchard arrived, he did not sack Santa Cruz but instead it was the residents of Branciforte who looted and stole from the mission even the clothes from the saints adorning the church. The missionaries and neophytes came back to find the whole place ransacked, but it was soon discovered who the culprits had really been. This event deepened the mistrust both the communities held for each other.</p><br>
<p>By 1831 however, Branciforte had a population of about two hundred people which was mostly made up of merchants, explorers, and retired soldiers.</p><br>
<p>The Branciforte Adobe is the only remaining building in Santa Cruz from this period. Near the historic block there is now a campus with multiple schools: Alternative Family Education, Costanoa, ARK and Monarch Elementary. The School Mascot for AFE is Shadow The Hedgehog</p><br>
<p>Chomo Lonzo is a mountain in Tibet, 5 km northeast of Makalu in the Mahalungur  or Khumbu Himalayas. Alternate spellings of the same name include Chomolonzo, Chomolönzo, Chomo Lönzo, Jomolönzo, and Lhamalangcho.</p><br>
<p>Chomo-Lonzo has three distinct summits. The Southern, main peak (7804m) is joined via a ~ 7250m saddle to the Central peak (7565m), which is joined via a ~7050m saddle to a ~7200m North (or North West) peak.</p><br>
<p>While from Nepal the mountain is overpowered by nearby Makalu, the fifth-highest peak in the world, the three peaks are a very impressive and dominating sight from the Kangshung valley in Tibet. The 3000 m high is an obvious challenge that is as yet unsolved. Chomo-Lonzo translates to “bird goddess” and from the East the mountain indeed brings to mind a 3 km high.</p><br>
<p>The French climbers Jean Couzy and Lionel Terray reached the main summit via the gently sloping SW ridge from the 7200m Sakietang La that separates Chomo Lonzo from Makalu. They did this as an afterthought during a reconnaissance expedition to the Makalu, which they first-ascended the next year. The second ascent was only in 1993 by a Japanese expedition which found a route through the NW face that joined the SW ridge half-way. A third and currently last ascent of the main peak in 1994 followed the original SW ridge route.</p><br>
<p>The Central and North peaks remained unclimbed until 2005. In 1999, an attempt to climb the central peak via its daunting NE pillar was thwarted. In April 2005, a French expedition first explored the NE face but, finding it too challenging, approached the mountain from the West and Northwest instead. One team (Yannick Graziani, Christian Trommsdorff and Patrick Wagnon) climbed the North summit over the NW ridge on May 7, while another (Stéphane Benoist and Patrice Glairon-Rappaz) reached it over the West face on May 16. The first team reascended the North peak and continued to reach the central peak on May 21. The initial plan to traverse all three peaks and descend via the Sakietang La proved impossible.</p><br>
<h2>View</h2><br>
<p>El Capitan  is a vertical rock formation in Yosemite National Park, located on the north side of Yosemite Valley, near its western end. The granite monolith extends about 3,000 feet  from base to summit along its tallest face and is one of the world&#39;s favorite challenges for rock climbers and BASE jumpers.</p><br>
<p>The formation was named "El Capitan" by the Mariposa Battalion when they explored the valley in 1851. El Capitan ("the captain", "the chief") was taken to be a loose Spanish translation of the local Native American name for the cliff, variously transcribed as "To-to-kon oo-lah" or "To-tock-ah-noo-lah" (Miwok language). It is unclear if the Native American name referred to a specific tribal chief or simply meant "the chief" or "rock chief".</p><br>
<p>The top of El Capitan can be reached by hiking out of Yosemite Valley on the trail next to Yosemite Falls, then proceeding west. For climbers, the challenge is to climb up the sheer granite face. There are many named climbing routes, all of them arduous, including Iron Hawk and Sea of Dreams, for example.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>El Capitan is composed almost entirely of granite, a pale, coarse-grained granite emplaced approximately 100 mya (million years ago). In addition to El Capitan, this granite forms most of the rock features of the western portions of Yosemite Valley. A separate intrusion of igneous rock, the Taft Granite, forms the uppermost portions of the cliff face.</p><br>
<p>A third igneous rock, diorite, is present as dark-veined intrusions through both kinds of granite, especially prominent in the area known as the North America Wall.</p><br>
<p>Along with most of the other rock formations of Yosemite Valley, El Capitan was carved by glacial action. Several periods of glaciation have occurred in the Sierra Nevada, but the Sherwin Glaciation, which lasted from approximately 1.3 million years ago (mya) to 1 mya, is considered to be responsible for the majority of the sculpting. The El Capitan Granite is relatively free of joints, and as a result the glacial ice did not erode the rock face as much as other, more jointed, rocks nearby. Nonetheless, as with most of the rock forming Yosemites features, El Capitans granite is under enormous internal tension brought on by the compression experienced prior to the erosion that brought it to the surface. These forces contribute to the creation of features such as the Texas Flake, a large block of granite slowly detaching from the main rock face about halfway up the side of the cliff.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>Between the two main faces, the Southwest (on the left when looking directly at the wall) and the Southeast, is a prow. While today there are numerous established routes on both faces, the most popular and historically famous route is The Nose, which follows the south buttress.</p><br>
<h3>Pioneering The Nose</h3><br>
<p>The Nose was first climbed in 1958 by Warren Harding, Wayne Merry and George Whitmore in 47 days using "siege" tactics: climbing in an expedition style using fixed ropes along the length of the route, linking established camps along the way. The fixed manila ropes allowed the climbers to ascend and descend from the ground up throughout the 18-month project, although they presented unique levels of danger as well, sometimes breaking due to the long exposure to cold temperatures. The climbing team relied heavily on aid climbing, using rope, pitons and expansion bolts to make it to the summit. The second ascent of The Nose was in 1960 by Royal Robbins, Joe Fitschen, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost, who took seven days in the first continuous climb of the route without siege tactics. The first ascent of The Nose in one day was accomplished in 1975 by John Long, Jim Bridwell and Billy Westbay. Today, The Nose typically takes fit climbers 4–5 days of full climbing, and has a success rate of around 60%.</p><br>
<h3>Expansion of routes</h3><br>
<p>Efforts during the 1960s and 1970s explored the other faces of El Capitan, and many of the early routes are still popular today. Among the early classics are Salathé Wall (1961, Royal Robbins, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost) on the southwest face, and the North America Wall (1964, Royal Robbins, Yvon Chouinard, Chuck Pratt and Tom Frost) on the southeast face. Also climbed in the 1960s are routes such as: Dihedral Wall (1962, Ed Cooper, Jim Baldwin and Glen Denny); West Buttress (1963, Layton Kor and Steve Roper); and Muir Wall (1965, Yvon Chouinard and TM Herbert).</p><br>
<p>Later ascents include: Wall of the Early Morning Light, now known as Dawn Wall, on the Southeast face, adjacent to the prow (1970, Warren Harding and Dean Caldwell)</p><br>
<p>Zodiac (1972, Charlie Porter (solo)); The Shield (1972, Porter and Gary Bocarde); Mescalito (1973, Porter, Steve Sutton, Hugh Burton and C. Nelson); Pacific Ocean Wall (1975, Jim Bridwell, Billy Westbay, Jay Fiske and Fred East); Sea of Dreams (1978, Bridwell, Dale Bard and Dave Diegelman); and Jolly Roger (1979, Charles Cole and Steve Grossman). Today there are over 70 routes on "El Cap" of various difficulties and danger levels. New routes continue to be established, usually consisting of additions to, or links between, existing routes.</p><br>
<h3>Solo climbing</h3><br>
<p>After his successful solo ascent of the Leaning Tower, Royal Robbins turned his attention to the Yvon Chouinard-T.M. Herbert Muir Wall route, completing the first solo ascent of El Capitan during a 10-day push in 1968. The first solo ascents of El Capitan&#39;s four classic "siege" routes were accomplished by Thomas Bauman on The Nose in 1969; Peter Hann on the Salathe Wall in 1972; Robert Kayen on the Layton Kor-Steve Roper West Buttress route in 1982; and Beverly Johnson (first solo ascent by a woman) on the Cooper-Baldwin-Denny Dihedral Wall route in 1978. Other noteworthy early solo ascents were the solo first ascent of Cosmos by Jim Dunn in 1972, Zodiac by Charlie Porter in 1972; Tangerine Trip by David Mittel in 1985; and The Pacific Ocean Wall by Robert Slater in 1982. These ascents were long 7- to 14-day ordeals that required the solo climber lead each pitch, and then rappel, clean the climbing gear, reascend the lead rope, and haul equipment, food, and water using a second haul rope.</p><br>
<p>On June 3, 2017, Alex Honnold made the first free-solo ascent of El Capitan in 3 hours and 56 minutes via the route Freerider - completing the most difficult free-solo in history.</p><br>
<h3>Ascents by women</h3><br>
<p>Beverly Johnson was the first woman to successfully ascend El Capitan, via the Nose route, with Dan Asay in June 1973. In September 1973, Beverly Johnson and Sibylle Hechtel were the first team of women to ascend El Capitan via the Triple Direct route, which takes the first ten pitches of the Salathe Wall, then continues up the middle portion of El Capitan via the Muir Wall, and finishes on the upper pitches of the Nose route. In 1977, Molly Higgins and Barb Eastman climbed the Nose, to become the second party of women to climb El Capitan and the first to climb it via the Nose. In 1978, Bev Johnson was the first woman to solo El Capitan by climbing the Dihedral Wall. In 1993, Lynn Hill established the first free Ascent of The Nose (IV 5.14a/b). Hazel Findlay has made three free ascents of El Capitan, including the first female ascent of Golden Gate in 2011, the first female ascent of Pre-Muir Wall in 2012, and a three-day ascent of Freerider in 2013.</p><br>
<h3>Free climbing</h3><br>
<p>As it became clear that any non-crumbling face could be conquered with sufficient perseverance and bolt-hole drilling, some climbers began searching for El Cap routes that could be climbed either free or with minimal aid. The West Face route was free climbed in 1979 by Ray Jardine and Bill Price; but despite numerous efforts by Jardine and others, The Nose resisted free attempts for another fourteen years. The first free ascent of a main El Cap route, though, was not The Nose, but Salathé Wall. Todd Skinner and Paul Piana made the first free ascent over 9 days in 1988, after 30 days of working the route (graded 5.13b on the Yosemite Decimal System). The Nose was the second major route to be freeclimbed. Two pitches on The Nose blocked efforts to free the route: the "Great Roof" graded 5.13c and "Changing Corners" graded 5.14a/b. In 1993, Lynn Hill came close to freeing The Nose, making it past the Great Roof and up to Camp VI without falling, stopped only on Changing Corners by a piton jammed in a critical finger hold. After removing the piton she re-climbed the route from the ground. After 4 days of climbing, Hill reached the summit, making her the first person to free climb The Nose. A year later, Hill returned to free climb The Nose in a day, this time reaching the summit in just 23 hours and setting a new standard for free climbing on "El Cap."</p><br>
<p>The Nose saw a second free ascent in 1998, when Scott Burke summitted after 261 days of effort. On October 14, 2005, Tommy Caldwell and Beth Rodden, husband and wife, became the third and fourth people (and the first couple) to free climb The Nose. They took four days on the ascent, swapping leads with each climber free climbing each pitch, either leading or following. Two days later, Caldwell returned to free climb The Nose in less than 12 hours. Caldwell returned two weeks later to free climb El Cap twice in a day, completing The Nose with Rodden, then descending and leading Freerider in a combined time of 23 hours 23 minutes.</p><br>
<p>On January 14, 2015 Tommy Caldwell and Kevin Jorgeson completed the first free climb of the Dawn Wall after 19 days, one of the hardest climbs in the world. In November 2016, Czech climber Adam Ondra free climbed the Dawn Wall in 8 days.</p><br>
<p>On June 3rd, 2017, Alex Honnold completed the first free solo climb of El Capitan, without protective equipment. He ascended the Freerider line in 3 hours and 56 minutes, beginning at 5:32 am PDT and reaching the peak at 9:28 am PDT.</p><br>
<h3>Speed climbing</h3><br>
<p>The speed climbing record for the Nose has changed hands several times in the past few years. The record currently belongs to Brad Gobright and Jim Reynolds, who broke the previous record by four minutes, with a time of 2:19:44 (2 hours, 19 minutes, 44 seconds) on October 21, 2017. Mayan Smith-Gobat and Libby Sauter broke the speed record for an all-women team, with a time of 4:43, on October 23, 2014.</p><br>
<p>On November 6, 2010, Dean Potter and Sean Leary had established the previous record at 2:36:45, breaking the old record held by Hans Florine and Yuji Hirayama by a mere 20 seconds.</p><br>
<p>Prior to that, the Huber brothers (Alexander and Thomas) held the record with a time of 2:45:45 (2007).</p><br>
<h3>Climb photography</h3><br>
<p>Climbers Tommy Caldwell, Lynn Hill, and Alex Honnold photographed their El Capitan climbs using 360 degree spherical VR photography. The photographs were taken by them or by other photographers during the climbs.</p><br>
<p>In January 2015, climbers Kevin Jorgeson and Tommy Caldwell photographed their free climb of the Dawn Wall.</p><br>
<h2>BASE jumping</h2><br>
<p>El Capitan has a controversial history regarding BASE jumping, and the National Park Service has effectively banned the practice. Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert made the first BASE jump from El Capitan on July 24, 1966. Both men sustained broken bones from the jump. During the 1970s and with better equipment and training, many BASE jumpers made successful and safe jumps from El Capitan. In 1980 the National Park Service experimented with issuing BASE-jumping permits. The first legal BASE jump was performed on August 4, 1980 by Dean Westgaard of Laguna Beach. These legal jumps resulted in no major injuries or fatalities. However, some jumpers exhibited significant disregard for the park&#39;s rules and the environment. After a trial lasting only ten weeks, the National Park Service ceased issuing permits and effectively shut down all BASE jumping on El Capitan. On October 22, 1999, BASE jumper and stuntwoman Jan Davis died during a jump protesting the death of a jumper who had landed safely but drowned while fleeing park rangers.</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>El Capitan is featured on a United States quarter dollar coin minted in 2010 as part of the America the Beautiful Quarters series.</p><br>
<p>The Apple Mac operating system OS X 10.11 is named El Capitan, and includes a variety of desktop pictures depicting the cliff.</p><br>
<p>Mount Aspiring / Tititea is New Zealands 23rd-highest mountain. It is the countrys highest outside the Aoraki / Mount Cook region.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Set within Otagos Mount Aspiring National Park, it has a height of 3,033 m. Māori named it Tititea, which translates as Glistening Peak. It was named in December 1857 by the Chief Surveyor for the Otago Province, John Turnbull Thomson. It is also often called the Matterhorn of the South, for its pyramidal peak when seen from the Matukituki River. The first ascent was on 23 November 1909 by Major Bernard Head and guides Jack Clarke and Alec Graham. Heads party climbed to the summit ridge by the west face from the Bonar Glacier, a route not repeated until 1965.</p><br>
<p>Mount Aspiring / Tititea sits slightly to the west of the main divide, 30 kilometres west of Lake Wanaka. It lies at the junction of three major glacial systems – the Bonar Glacier, which drains into the Waipara River, and the Volta and Therma Glaciers, which both drain into the Waitoto River. The Waipara is a tributary of the Arawhata River, and both the Arawhata and Waitoto Rivers flow out to the west coast in between Haast and Jackson Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>The most used route to Mount Aspiring is up the West Matukituki Valley, which is at the end of a 50-kilometre road from Wanaka at Raspberry Flat. From here a network of huts provide staging points for climbers.</p><br>
<p>The first is Mount Aspiring Hut, which is 8 kilometres (or approximately two hours&#39; walk) from the end of the road. The next hut is an 8-12hr hike away that is mainly off trail. The trail only provides a route for the first half of the approach that winds through the flat valley floor. From the end of the trail one can either ascend the French Ridge and traverse the Bonar Glacier, or ascend Bevan Col to the Bonar Glacier. Both require good route finding skills and knowledge of rock climbing techniques and glacial travel. Many climbers opt to fly in via helicopter because of the gruelling approach.</p><br>
<p>Leith Hill is a wooded hill 7 km to the south west of Dorking, Surrey, England. It reaches 294 m above sea level, the highest point on the Greensand Ridge, and is the second highest point in south-east England, after Walbury Hill near Hungerford, West Berkshire, 297 m high. Leith Hill is the highest ground for 49 miles.</p><br>
<p>It was possibly on the summit of Leith Hill in 851, that Æthelwulf of Wessex, father of Alfred the Great, defeated the Danes who were heading for Winchester, having sacked Canterbury and London.</p><br>
<p>The nearest railway station is Holmwood Station, 2 mi to the east. This station is served by Southern trains on the Sutton & Mole Valley Line route.</p><br>
<h2>Battle Of Leith Hill</h2><br>
<p>The hill&#39;s first notable role in history was as a battlefield in the ninth century struggle between Saxons and Danes. In 851AD the Danes planned a full scale invasion, after raiding the country regularly for many years. The Danes invaded up the Thames and burnt Canterbury and then London. The next target was Winchester, but on their march towards Winchester they met the army of Ethelwulf, father of Alfred the Great. Ethelwulf, it seems, took up a position on the slopes of Leith Hill - an ancient mass grave found in 1882 seems to point to this area as the site of battle (Stories of the Surrey Hills published by the Surrey Society). Ethelwulf was able to use position on high ground to win the huge battle that followed. This battle ended the Danes immediate prospects of conquering the whole of Britain.</p><br>
<h2>Leith Hill Tower</h2><br>
<p>On the summit of Leith Hill is an 18th-century Gothic tower. In 1765-6 Richard Hull of nearby Leith Hill Place built "Prospect House", later to become known as Leith Hill Tower, with the intention of raising the hill above 1,000 ft above sea level. The tower is 19.5 m high and consisted of two rooms "neatly furnished", with a Latin inscription above the door announcing that it had been built not only for his own pleasure, but also for the enjoyment of others. Hull provided visitors with prospect glasses, similar to a small telescope, through which to survey the extensive views towards London and the English Channel, each some 25 mi away.</p><br>
<p>When he died in 1772, at his request he was buried under the tower. Following his death, the building was stripped of its contents, doors and windows, and fell into ruin. As a result, the tower was filled with rubble and concrete, and the entrance bricked up.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, Mr Evelyn of nearby Wotton House decided to reopen it, but the concrete made this difficult, and so the additional turreted side-tower was added to allow access to the top of the tower.</p><br>
<p>At the top of the tower there is a viewpoint indicator to commemorate Walker Miles, whose work in the early days of the Rambler&#39;s movement contributed to the formation of The Ramblers of Great Britain. It has been claimed that on a clear day, 13 counties can be seen from the top of Leith Hill Tower.</p><br>
<p>The tower was fully restored by the National Trust in 1984. This restoration included the removal of rubble and concrete, fitting safety features such as a handrail in the narrow staircase, and converting the lower portion of the tower into a servery. Leith Hill Tower is open to the public every day from 10:00 am until 3:00 pm weekdays and 9:00 am to 5:00 pm on weekends, every day of the year except Christmas Day, with a comprehensive display explaining the history of the tower. Standing on the top of Leith Hill Tower you are at the highest point in the south-east of England.</p><br>
<h2>Leith Hill Place</h2><br>
<p>Originally a gabled house dating from about 1600, Leith Hill Place was completely refaced in a Palladian style about 1760 by Richard Hull. It was bought in 1847 by Josiah Wedgwood III and remained in the family until the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, who had been brought up there and eventually inherited it, gave it to the National Trust in 1944. Subsequently it was leased from the Trust by his cousins Sir Ralph Wedgwood and then Sir John Wedgwood, later becoming a boarding house for a nearby sixth form college, Hurtwood House. The property is claimed to be haunted, with several School Masters of the day reporting strange goings-on, noises and even apparitions. The house was opened to the public by the National Trust in 2013 and now serves as a memorial to Ralph Vaughan Williams,</p><br>
<p>Josiah Wedgwood&#39;s widow, born Caroline Darwin, created a rhododendron wood there, now open to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Search For Oil</h2><br>
<p>Europa Oil and Gas is currently (Nov 2016) undertaking an attempt to drill for oil under the Leith Hill area, using a horizontal drill rig passing under the nearby Coldharbour Village. This involves the cutting down and clearing of approximately 1 hectare of natural forest woodland and building a tall drilling rig that will be visible for many miles around. Two protest groups are currently making an attempt to stop this, one a legal orientated protest group known as Leith Hill Action Group and a non-violent land occupation group known as the Leith Hill Protection Camp.</p><br>
<h2>Geodesy</h2><br>
<p>Leith Hill Tower was the origin (meridian) of the 6 inch and 1:2500 Ordnance Survey maps of Surrey.</p><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is a potentially active stratovolcano in the Sea to Sky Country of British Columbia, 80 km north of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Located in the southernmost Coast Mountains, it is one of the most recognized peaks in the South Coast region, as well as British Columbia&#39;s best known volcano. It lies within the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges.</p><br>
<p>This heavily eroded dome complex occupies the southwest corner of Garibaldi Provincial Park overlooking the town of Squamish.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Indigenous people</h3><br>
<p>To Squamish people, the local indigenous people of this territory, the mountain is called Nch&#39;kay. In their language it means "Dirty Place" or "Grimy One". This name of the mountain refers to the muddy water in the Cheekye River. Cultural ceremonial use, hunting, trapping and plant gathering occur around the Mount Garibaldi area, but the most important resource was a lithic material called obsidian. Obsidian is a black volcanic glass that was used to make knives, chisels, adzes, and other sharp tools in pre-contact times. This material appears in sites dated to 10,000 years ago up to protohistoric time periods. The source for this material is found in upper parts of the mountain area in higher elevations that surround the mountain range.</p><br>
<h3>Later history</h3><br>
<p>British Explorer Captain George Vancouver reached Howe Sound in June 1792 and became the first European to see the mountain. During this time George Vancouver met and traded with the local natives in the area.</p><br>
<p>In 1860, while carrying out a survey of Howe Sound on board the Royal Navy survey ship HMS Plumper, Captain George Henry Richards was impressed by a gigantic mountain dominating the view to the northeast. Captain Richards, and his officers, renamed the mountain after the Italian military and political leader Giuseppe Garibaldi, who that year had succeeded in unifying Italy by patriating Sicily and Naples. In August 1907, the Vancouver mountaineers A. Dalton, W. Dalton, A. King, T. Pattison, J.J. Trorey, and G. Warren reached the summit of Mount Garibaldi. The views from the peak inspired the establishment of summer climbing camps at Garibaldi Lake. This early interest led to the creation in 1920 of a park reserve.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, Garibaldi was made into a large wilderness park called Garibaldi Provincial Park. Named after Mount Garibaldi, this 1,946.5 square kilometre park was established to protect the rich geological history, diverse vegetation, iridescent waters, abundant wildlife, and rugged mountains, many of which are capped by glaciers.</p><br>
<p>When skiing caught on in the 1940s, Vancouver skiers began to search the glaciers and rugged mountains within the park. Early skiing was limited to the more easily reached area around Garibaldi Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Subsidiary peaks</h2><br>
<p>The broad top of Mount Garibaldi contains three named peaks. The highest peak is named as the mountain itself, reaching 2,678 m above sea level. The lowest of the three is the rounded Dalton Dome, 2,653 m high, west of the highest summit. This peak is named after Arthur Tinniswood Dalton, one of the guides of the 1907 ascent.</p><br>
<p>A feature on the north side of the mountain, known as The Tent, reaches 2,465 m and lies in Garibaldi Provincial Park. Another minor summit on the south side of the mountain, 2,056 m high, is known as Diamond Head (sometimes Little Diamond Head) for its resemblance to Diamond Head in Hawaii. Diamond Head was the site of a ski proposal and small lodge, now derelict. On the northwest side of Mount Garibaldi, Brohm Ridge lies outside the western boundary of Garibaldi Provincial Park. The Sharkfin sticks up out of the Warren Glacier on the northeast side of the mountain with a height of 2,000 m, just northeast of Squamish. Columnar Peak rises on the south side of the mountain with a height of 1,826 m, just southwest of Mamquam Lake at southwest end of Garibaldi Provincial Park. Two pinnacles of volcanic rock 5 km south of Mount Garibaldi&#39;s summit, which attain heights of 1,816 m and 1,823 m, have been known as The Gargoyles since 1978.</p><br>
<h2>Glaciers and icefields</h2><br>
<p>Two pocket glaciers lie right below the east side of Atwell Peak, the Diamond Glacier to the southeast and the upper Bishop Glacier to the northeast. Straight north of Atwell toward Mount Garibaldi lies a small, high-elevation ice cap called the Cheekye Glacier, the name of which is associated with Cheekye River.</p><br>
<p>A large icefield lies on the eastern and northern flanks of Mount Garibaldi called the Garibaldi Névé. Its drainage is to the east into the Pitt River, to the southwest into Garibaldi Lake. It has an area of 35 km and is an area of substantial snowfall with more than 5 m in many winters. The Garibaldi Névé is usually accessed from the south through the Bishop Glacier or from the north through the Sentinel Glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Mountain climbing on Mount Garibaldi is fairly difficult; it is fairly steep-sided and involves climbing very loose rotten lava and volcanic ash. Fortunately, Mount Garibaldi has large areas of massive glaciation and extensive snowfields. The eastern and northern flanks of the mountain are smothered by the Garibaldi Névé where the finest climbing opportunities exist, making the easiest route a glacial travel or snow climb.% Routes keep mostly to the alpine glaciers and snow slopes, which are abundant in winter and spring, but eventually melt in late spring and commonly vanish after June or July of most years. After the snow and ice melts, fissures and fractures can pose difficulty and danger, and avalanches from higher peaks of the mountain are a hazard. For this reason, early season, cold-weather ascents are recommended for most routes up Garibaldi.</p><br>
<p>Hiking, photography, and camping are popular in the Garibaldi area. Several trailheads provide access to the backcountry. In mid to late summer, visitors pass through meadows of wildflowers along alpine trails. Garibaldi Provincial Park is also popular for winter sports, including backcountry skiing and snowshoeing.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi lies within the Coast Plutonic Complex, which is the single largest contiguous granite outcropping in North America. In contrast, Garibaldi, Meager, Cayley and Silverthrone areas are of recent volcanic origin.</p><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is one of the few Cascade volcanoes that is made exclusively of dacite (Glacier Peak is the other). The mountain has a unique asymmetrical shape because its main cone was constructed atop part of a large glacier system associated with the Cordilleran Ice Sheet that has since melted away. Unlike many of the other Cascade volcanoes to the south, Garibaldi does not dominate the surrounding landscape, which consists of many high, rugged peaks. Many residents of Vancouver are therefore not aware that there is a volcano closer to the city than the more easily visible Mount Baker in Washington State.</p><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi began erupting about 250,000 years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like all of the Cascade volcanoes, Mount Garibaldi has its origins in the Cascadia subduction zone—a long convergent plate boundary that stretches from mid-Vancouver Island to Northern California. The subduction zone separates the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda and North American Plates. Here, the oceanic crust of the Pacific Ocean sinks beneath North America at a rate of 40 mm per year. Hot magma upwelling above the descending oceanic plate creates volcanoes, and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years.</p><br>
<p>The subduction zone has existed for at least 37 million years, and has created a line of volcanoes called the Cascade Volcanic Arc which stretches over 1,000 km along the subduction zone. Several volcanoes in the arc are potentially active. Lassen Peak in California, which last erupted in 1917, is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc, while Mount Meager, just north of Mount Garibaldi, which erupted about 2,350 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost. A few isolated volcanic centres northwest of Mount Meager, such as the Silverthrone Caldera, which is a circular 20 km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex, are considered by some geologists to be the northernmost member of the arc.</p><br>
<h3>Structure</h3><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is the largest volcano in southernmost British Columbia. Like other stratovolcanoes, it is composed of many layers of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. Eruptions are explosive in nature, and the most common form is the Peléan style, which involves viscous magma, glowing avalanches of hot volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows. The source magma of this rock is classified as acidic, having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite). The tephra deposits have lower volume and range than the corresponding Plinian and Vulcanian eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is known both for the very high quality exposures of its internal structure and for its conspicuous topographic anomalies, which can be attributed to the growth of the mountain onto a large glacier system and the subsequent collapse of the flanks of the volcano with the melting of the ice. The western flanks of the mountain expose basement rocks, sheared and altered quartz diorite, carved by streams and glaciers into a rugged topography with relief up to 1,800 m. Valleys in this jagged surface have been filled with 0.52 to 0.22 million year old dacite and andesite flows, tuff breccias, and domes, precursors of the activity at Mount Garibaldi. About 0.8 cumi of material remains in the volcano. In modern times, the apron of material around the volcano&#39;s main vent extends at least 4.8 km from its source in places that were covered by ice. In other areas its extent is less and its slope is steeper.</p><br>
<p>Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of subduction zones. The magma that forms them arises when water, which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressure/temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths. The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the surface it pools in a magma chamber under the volcano. The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other volatiles (CO2, S, Cl) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution, much like when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle provided by the volcanic cone is overcome, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.</p><br>
<h3>Ancestral stages of eruptive activity</h3><br>
<p>The mountain grew in three phases. Garibaldis first phase resulted in the creation of a broad composite cone made of dacite and breccia that has been potassium-argon dated to 250,000 years old. Parts of this "proto-Garibaldi" or ancestral volcano are exposed on Garibaldis lower northern and eastern flanks and on the upper 240 m of Brohm Ridge. Around where Columnar Peak and possibly Glacier Pikes are now located, a series of coalescing dacite lava domes were constructed. During the ensuing long period of dormancy, the Cheekye River cut a deep valley into the cone&#39;s western flank that was later filled with a glacier.</p><br>
<p>After reaching its maximum extent the Cheekye Glacier along with part of the area&#39;s ice sheet were covered with volcanic ash and fragmented debris from Garibaldi. This period of growth began with the eruption of the Atwell Peak plug dome from a ridge surrounded by the several thousand foot ice sheet. As the plug dome rose, massive sheets of broken lava crumbled as talus down its sides. Numerous Peléan pyroclastic flows (consisting of a super-heated mix of gas, ash, and pumice) accompanied these cooler avalanches, forming a fragmental cone 6.3 km3 in volume and an overall slope of 12 to 15 degrees. (Erosion has since steepened this slope.)</p><br>
<p>Glacial overlap was most significant on the west and somewhat to the south. This series of debris flows carried 2.5 km3 of the mountain into the Squamish Valley where it covers 10 square miles to a thickness of about 300 ft. Gaps left by melting ice caused minor to moderate cone distortion where the ice sheet was thin and major distortion where it was thick. The ice was thickest in and thus cone distortion was greatest over the buried Cheekye valley.</p><br>
<p>Soon before or after the buried ice had melted away, dacite lava quietly erupted from Opal Cone southeast of the Atwell Peak plug dome 10,700 to 9,300 years ago One of the lava flows traveled down a 30% to 35% grade over the landslide scar on the western flank. About 0.15 cumi of dacite erupted in Garibaldi&#39;s third period of activity. This lava forms a thin layer of solid rock on the southern and western sides of the volcano and contains well-defined lava flow margin levees. The Ring Creek lava flow is very unusual because lengthy lava flows are usually attained by fluid basalt flows, but the Ring Creek flow is dacite.</p><br>
<h3>Current activity</h3><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes most strongly associated with recent seismic activity; the others are Castle Rock, and Nazko Cone. The mountain is informally described as "dormant" ("asleep") because the mountain has not erupted in historic times, nor does it display fumarolic activity like nearby Mount Baker. However, seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma plumbing systems, indicating possible future eruptive activity. Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some of Canadas volcanoes are potentially active, and that their associated hazards may be significant. The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canadas most youthful volcanoes, and with long-lived volcanic centres with a history of significant explosive behavior, such as Mount Garibaldi. No hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area like those found at Mount Meager and Mount Cayley, the other major volcanic complexes in the Garibaldi belt, although there are hints of anomalously high local heat flow in Table Meadows and elsewhere.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic hazards</h2><br>
<p>Volcanic eruptions in Canada rarely cause fatalities because of their remoteness and low level of activity. The only known fatality due to volcanic activity in Canada occurred at the Tseax Cone in 1775, when a 22.5 km long basaltic lava flow travelled down the Tseax and Nass Rivers, destroying a Nisga&#39;a village and killing approximately 2,000 people by volcanic gases.</p><br>
<p>Many towns and cities near Mount Garibaldi are home to over half of British Columbia&#39;s human population, and there is a likelihood that future eruptions will cause damage to populated areas, making Mount Garibaldi and other Garibaldi belt volcanoes a major hazard. There are significant hazards from almost all Canadian volcanoes that require hazard maps and emergency plans. Volcanoes which exhibit significant seismic activity, such as Mount Garibaldi, appear to be most likely to erupt. A significant eruption of any of the Garibaldi belt volcanoes would significantly impact Highway 99 and communities like Pemberton, Whistler and Squamish, and possibly Vancouver.</p><br>
<h3>Explosive eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Explosive eruptions from Mount Garibaldi would pose a severe threat to the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish. Although no Plinian eruptions have been identified in Garibaldi&#39;s eruptive history, even Peléan eruptions could create large amounts of ash that could significantly affect these local communities. Ash columns may rise to several hundred meters above the volcano, and due to its close proximity to Vancouver this could pose a threat for air traffic. Melting of leftover glacial ice covering the Mount Garibaldi area may cause floods, lahars, or debris flows that could possibly threaten small communities such as Brackendale. Highway 99 is already plagued by landslides and debris flows from the steep rugged Coast Mountains.</p><br>
<p>An eruption creating floods could demolish sections of the highway. Flooding and debris flows could also have severe issues for the salmon fishery on the Squamish, Cheakamus, and Mamquam rivers. In addition, explosive eruptions and the associated ash column could cause short-and long-term water supply difficulties for Vancouver and most of the lower mainland. The catchment area for the Greater Vancouver watershed is close to the Garibaldi area. Pyroclastic fall could also have a deleterious effect on the ice fields to the east of Mount Garibaldi, causing more melting and spring flooding. This in turn could endanger water supplies from Pitt Lake as well as fisheries on the Pitt River.</p><br>
<h3>Lava flows</h3><br>
<p>The hazard from lava flows would be low to moderate because the nature of the lavas would prevent them from travelling far from their source, even though the Ring Creek lava flow ends only 6 km from Squamish. Lava domes often grow by the extrusion of many individual flows less than 30 m thick over a period of several months or years. Such flows will overlap one another and typically move less than a few meters per hour. Lava flows with high to intermediate levels of silica rarely extend more than 8 km from their source; for example, Garibaldi&#39;s 20 km long Ring Creek dacite lava flow.</p><br>
<h3>Landslides</h3><br>
<p>In the past, Garibaldi has had large debris flows. A section of the mountain collapsed into the Cheakamus River valley when the glacier Garibaldi was built on melted, creating a jagged unstable slope at the head of the Cheekye River. Repeated landslides from this steep cliff have created a huge debris fan at the mouth of the Cheekye River just north of Brackendale called the Cheekye Fan. Danger from future collapses have limited the growth of Brackendale onto the fan.</p><br>
<p>The steep northern edge of The Barrier in the Garibaldi area has partly collapsed several times, the most recent being in 1855–56. This collapse created a large boulder field below it, which gave Rubble Creek its name. Danger from future collapses prompted the provincial government to declare the area immediately below it unsafe for human habitation in 1981. This led to the evacuation of the small resort village of Garibaldi nearby, and the relocation of residents to new recreational subdivisions away from the hazard zone. Although imminent danger is unlikely, special regulations exist to warn potential danger and to minimize the risk to life and property in the event of a landslide.</p><br>
<h2>Monitoring</h2><br>
<p>Currently, Mount Garibaldi is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano&#39;s magma system is. The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain. It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption. It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting.</p><br>
<p>A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Garibaldi&#39;s geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behaviour, in terms of its eruption style, magnitude and frequency, so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions.</p><br>
<p>While there is a likelihood of Canada being critically affected by local or close by volcanic eruptions argues that some kind of improvement program is required. Benefit-cost thoughts are critical to dealing with natural hazards. However, a benefit-cost examination needs correct data about the hazard types, magnitudes and occurrences. These do not exist for volcanoes in British Columbia or elsewhere in Canada in the detail required.</p><br>
<p>Other volcanic techniques, such as hazard mapping, displays a volcano&#39;s eruptive history in detail and speculates an understanding of the hazardous activity that could possibly be expected in the future. At present no hazard maps have been created for Mount Garibaldi because the level of knowledge is insufficient due to its remoteness. A large volcanic hazard program has never existed within the Geological Survey of Canada. The majority of information has been collected in a lengthy, separate way from the support of several employees, such as volcanologists and other geologic scientists. Current knowledge is best established at Mount Meager north of Mount Garibaldi and is likely to rise considerably with a temporary mapping and monitoring project. Knowledge at Mount Garibaldi and other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is not as established, but certain contributions are being done at least Mount Cayley. An intensive program classifying infrastructural exposure near all young Canadian volcanoes and quick hazard assessments at each individual volcanic edifice associated with recent seismic activity would be in advance and would produce a quick and productive determination of priority areas for further efforts.</p><br>
<p>The existing network of seismographs to monitor tectonic earthquakes has existed since 1975, although it remained small in population until 1985. Apart from a few short-term seismic monitoring experiments by the Geological Survey of Canada, no volcano monitoring has been accomplished at Mount Garibaldi or at other volcanoes in Canada at a level approaching that in other established countries with historically active volcanoes. Active or restless volcanoes are usually monitored using at least three seismographs all within approximately 15 km, and frequently within 5 km, for better sensitivity of detection and reduced location errors, particularly for earthquake depth. Such monitoring detects the risk of an eruption, offering a forecasting capability which is important to mitigating volcanic risk. Currently Mount Garibaldi does not have a seismograph closer than 25 km. With increasing distance and declining numbers of seismographs used to indicate seismic activity, the prediction capability is reduced because earthquake location accuracy and depth decreases, and the network becomes less accurate. The inaccurate earthquake locations in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt are a few kilometers, and in more isolated northern regions they are up to 10 km. The location magnitude level in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is about magnitude 1 to 1.5, and elsewhere it is magnitude 1.5 to 2. At carefully monitored volcanoes both the located and noticed events are recorded and surveyed immediately to improve the understanding of a future eruption. Undetected events are not recorded or surveyed in British Columbia immediately, nor in an easy-to-access process.</p><br>
<p>In countries like Canada it is possible that small precursor earthquake swarms might go undetected, particularly if no events were observed; more significant events in larger swarms would be detected but only a minor subdivision of the swarm events would be complex to clarify them with confidence as volcanic in nature, or even associate them with an individual volcanic edifice.</p><br>
<h2>Garibaldi Lake volcanic field</h2><br>
<p>Mount Garibaldi is associated with a group of small volcanoes that form the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field. An unusual volcanic structure called The Table is located between Garibaldi Lake and Mount Garibaldi. This several-hundred-foot-high flat-topped volcano is made of layers of andesitic dacite that are arranged like a stack of more or less equal sized pancakes. The Table was formed in the early Holocene at a time when the Cordilleran ice sheet covered the region. As the volcanos lava rose it melted the part of the ice sheet above The Tables vent, creating space for the lava to move into. Repeated eruptions constructed the steep-walled stack of lava seen today.</p><br>
<p>The Black Tusk is a large spire of extensively eroded dark volcanic rock that is shaped like a Walrus tusk. It is considered to be the remnant of an extinct andesitic stratovolcano which formed between about 1.3 and 1.1 million years ago.</p><br>
<p>Mount Price, west of Garibaldi Lake, 5 km south of The Black Tusk, was formed in three stages of activity, dating back 1.1 million years, the latest of which produced two large lava flows from Clinker Peak during the early Holocene that ponded against the retreating continental ice sheet and formed The Barrier, containing Garibaldi Lake.</p><br>
<p>Cinder Cone stands 150 m above a gap between two arms of Helmet Glacier on Garibaldi&#39;s flanks. During summer its crater is filled with a snow melt lake.</p><br>
<p>German Village is a historic neighborhood in Columbus, Ohio, just south of downtown. It was settled in the early-to-mid-19th century by a large number of German immigrants, who at one time comprised as much as a third of the citys entire population. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 30, 1974, becoming the lists largest privately funded preservation district, and in 2007, was made a Preserve America Community by the White House. On November 28, 1980, its boundaries increased, and today it is one of the world&#39;s premier historic restorations.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Early</h3><br>
<p>In 1796, Congress appropriated the Refugee Lands for individuals who had supported the Colonial cause in the American Revolution. By 1802, an American Revolution veteran named John McGowan claimed 328 acre, most of what would become the German Village. As German immigrants arrived, McGowan sold tracts of land to them. By 1814, a settlement had grown up, originally called "Das Alte Südende" (the Old South End), and German immigrants contributed to building the first statehouse.</p><br>
<h4>Immigration</h4><br>
<p>By 1830, massive German immigration to the city had occurred. The most influential German newspaper in 1843 was Der Westbote. Many would serve in the American Civil War, thus gaining the universal respect of the local citizens. By 1865, one-third of Columbuss population was German and the community was flourishing. They built up the local neighborhood, including many businesses, such as Hessenauer Jewelers and Lazarus Department Stores, schools, and churches, such as the Ohio-historic St. Marys Catholic Church, built in 1865 and adorned with a 197 ft steeple in 1893. German-American George J. Karb became mayor of the city, twice, at the end of the 19th century and again in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>During the early 20th century, the south end saw newcomers from eastern Europe aside from German immigrants, resulting in brother neighborhoods such as the Hungarian Village.</p><br>
<p>The local schools the German immigrants constructed and managed were so superior that English-speaking residents of Columbus chose to attend them, such as one that once stood at Fulton Street east of S. Fourth Street.</p><br>
<h4>World War I</h4><br>
<p>The area was in serious decline throughout the first half of the 20th century, partly due to anti-German sentiment during World War I. During that time, the teaching of German in public schools was banned and German textbooks were burned. German street names were changed, such as Germania Street becoming the present-day Stewart Avenue, and Schiller Park was temporarily renamed Washington Park. The anti-German sentiment fueled by the media was so bad that in 1918, German books were burned on Broad Street and at the foot of the Schiller statue. German canine breeds were taken from their owners and slaughtered, including German Shepherds and Dachshunds. Despite the hatred, the Columbus German American community would produce one of America&#39;s finest heroes from the war, Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, for whom Rickenbacker International Airport in southern Columbus is named.</p><br>
<h4>Declared Slum</h4><br>
<p>Further decline occurred later due to the closing of the local breweries during Prohibition. After the war, the south end was zoned for manufacturing, leading to the erosion of the area&#39;s residential feel. In World War II, the streetcar tracks and wrought-iron fences were confiscated for the war effort. By the 1950s, the area had become a slum and the city decided to demolish one-third of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<h3>Renewal</h3><br>
<h4>Frank Fetch</h4><br>
<p>With the Village nearing complete destruction, Frank Fetch defied the common wisdom and purchased a house on S. Wall Street, determined to rebuild the neighborhood. Fetch would create the German Village Society. In June 1960, the society hosted the first Haus und Garten Tour, which attracted visitors and the local media to eight restored homes and two gardens. Today, the tour is one of the city&#39;s most popular events. Frank Fetch Park was named after him.</p><br>
<h4>Historic Preservation</h4><br>
<p>Concerned citizens managed to save its historic architecture from demolition in the 1960s by lobbying for a local commission, the German Village Commission, to have power over external changes made to buildings and by getting the area listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975., the German Village Society has over 1,000 preservationists who maintain the historic quality of the buildings and neighborhood, and German Village is considered one of the most desirable areas to live in the city. More than 1,600 buildings have been restored since 1960 and it is credited as one of the world&#39;s premiere restoration districts. By the 1980s, the restoration was nearly complete. Today, it is the largest privately funded historic district on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h3>Modern</h3><br>
<p>The area is mostly a residential neighborhood of sturdy, red-brick homes with wrought iron fences along tree-lined, brick-paved streets.</p><br>
<p>The German Village Guest House has been recognized as one of the best in the Midwest by the New York Post, The Plain Dealer, and the St. Louis Post Dispatch, and positively reviewed by the Washington Post and The Tennessean. It was rated as the "Best Columbus Hotel 2010" by City Search.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, German Village was recognized by the White House as a Preserve America Community.</p><br>
<h4>Oktoberfest</h4><br>
<p>German tradition has long reigned in the community in the form of an annual Oktoberfest festival. It originally took place in Schiller Park and has been held at various locations within the German Village neighborhood. Due to new development in the area, it now takes place at the Ohio State Fairgrounds / Ohio Expo Center. The festival was voted to be canceled in 2009, but the Schmidt (owners and operators of Schmidt&#39;s Sausage Haus) and Cox families stepped in to keep it running.</p><br>
<p>A smaller Oktoberfest still goes on in the German Village itself, at the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (Singing and Sports Club) at 543 South Front Street in the old Schlee Brewmaster&#39;s House and outdoor garden.</p><br>
<h4>LGBTQ</h4><br>
<p>Although German Village is an eclectic community, the area is known as a Columbus "gayborhood." While there are no gay establishments within the German Village, the neighboring Brewery District and Merion Village have several. The 2010 Gay Softball World Series was held at nearby Lou Berliner park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Boundaries</h3><br>
<p>German Village is bound by Pearl Street on the west; East Livingston Avenue on the north; Lathrop Street, Brust Street, Grant Avenue, Jaeger Street, and Blackberry Alley on the east; and Nursery Lane on the south (Columbus City Planning Commission, Annual Report 1964).</p><br>
<h3>Parks and Landmarks</h3><br>
<p>Schiller Park, named after Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (1759-1805), was once a community meeting ground for German immigrants. It is now the site of recreational facilities, gardens, and an amphitheater that hosts free live performances of Shakespearean plays during the summer months courtesy of Actors Theatre of Columbus. It is bounded by Jaeger Street and City Park, Reinhard, and Deshler Avenues. It has been the areas center for festivals and neighborhood activities since the 1800s.</p><br>
<p>The 23-acre park&#39;s main entrance, along City Park Avenue, greets visitors with the Huntington Gardens, sponsored by Huntington National Bank and maintained by volunteers, and the Schiller statue. The statue was presented to the park by local residents in 1891. It is a second casting of the statue in Munich, Germany, designed and executed by Max von Widnmann and unveiled on May 9, 1863. The Columbus statue was transported free of charge across the Atlantic. The park is also home to the Umbrella Girl Fountain, dedicated to the citizens of German Village in October 1996 to replace the missing original sculpture.</p><br>
<h3>Residential</h3><br>
<p>The houses of German Village are settled close together on narrow plots. The area was originally settled mostly residential with commercial buildings scattered throughout. To keep this highly residential feel, the German Village Society has the area rezoned from manufacturing and commercial to high-density residential. The houses have small or no front yards, emphasizing local parks and gardens.</p><br>
<p>The average home price is $377,450. Several homes in the neighborhood are priced at over $1 million, including a 5,200 ft&sup2; home that sold in August 2007 for $1.5 million. Another home, which was purchased for $1.4 million in 2006, boasts an underground tunnel linking the main house with the garage, which also serves as an art and wine cellar.</p><br>
<h2>Commercial</h2><br>
<h3>Dining/Bars</h3><br>
<p>German Village has a commercial strip mainly centered along S. Third Street, with mostly locally owned restaurants — such as Katzinger&#39;s Delicatessen —</p><br>
<p>Schmidt’s Sausage Haus and Schmidt’s Fudge Haus have been a part of German Village for 120 years, opened by George F. Schmidt. The restaurant is still run by the family, and was featured on Man vs. Food in 2008. On East Whittier Street sits a restaurant named Barcelona. Known for its European style food and the incorporation of décor from local artists, Barcelona has been voted “Best Patio” and “Top 10 Restaurants” by the Columbus Dispatch. Thurman Café opened in German Village in 1942 by Nick Suclescy. Thurman was also featured on Man vs. Food in 2008, where the Thurmanator–Thurman’s giant eating challenge burger–was created. Katzinger’s Delicatessen is another family owned restaurant that opened in 1984 and is known for their deli sandwiches.</p><br>
<p>Numerous neighborhood restaurants won 2010 ThisWeek Community Papers awards, including Skillet as the Best New Restaurant in the city, and Thurman Café for Best Burgers.</p><br>
<p>German Village is the home of the first restaurant in the Max & Erma&#39;s chain. In 1972, the restaurant was opened by Barry Zacks. The name was adopted from the original tavern, started in 1958 by Max and Erma Visocnik, which the new owners converted into the popular theme restaurant.</p><br>
<h3>Retail/imported</h3><br>
<p>The neighborhood is home to one of the world&#39;s largest producers of stained glass, the Franklin Art Glass Studios Inc., as well as several art galleries including the Archive Gallery, Hawk Galleries, Keny Gallery, and Kight Studio 551. Shops catering to European-imported retail include Caterina Ltd.</p><br>
<p>German Village is houses a few unique shops including the 32-room Book Loft, a pre-Civil War era style book store; Hausfrau Haven–a wine and gift shop; and several art galleries. There are also some import shops, specifically Caterina’s Ltd. Which sells European housewares. The neighborhood is home to one of the world&#39;s largest producers of stained glass, the Franklin Art Glass Studios Inc., as well as several art galleries including the Archive Gallery, Hawk Galleries, Keny Gallery, and Kight Studio 551.</p><br>
<h2>Miscellaneous</h2><br>
<h3>America's Great Places</h3><br>
<p>In 2011, German Village was named as one of America&#39;s Great Places in the Neighborhoods category by the American Planning Association. Their description reads, "Unpretentious, renovated houses and cottages stand shoulder to shoulder. Small, meticulously maintained front yards front tree-lined streets with brick sidewalks and cultivated village planters. Small businesses and storefronts with eye-catching displays and the aroma of culinary delights draw in passing pedestrians. German Village has remained true to its mid-19th century history, architecture, and character despite periods of disinvestment, decline, and near ruin.".</p><br>
<h3>German Brewery District</h3><br>
<p>A prosperous industry for the German immigrants was the brewing industry. Today, the Brewery District, part of the greater German Village neighborhood, still partially resembles its notable past. During the 19th century, the area was found largely along both sides of S. Front Street from Livingston Avenue to Sycamore Street.</p><br>
<p>Notable breweries during this period included the Bavarian Brewery, started in 1849 by George Schlegel, which ultimately became the Shlegel Bavarian Brewery in 1860 when Bavarian Nicholas Schlee immigrated and took over. Schlee also owned the Lyceum Theater and served as vice president of the Central Bank. The industry flourished during the early 20th century.</p><br>
<p>One of the last major brewers of the city before Prohibition was August Wagner, who immigrated from Bavaria in the late 19th century and worked as the brewmaster at the City Brewery before becoming president and general manager of the Gambrinus Brewing Company. By 1919, he had purchased all of the stock for the company to become the sole owner, and in 1938 he changed the name to August Wagner Breweries, Inc. A statue of Gambrinus is located at 605 S. Front Street.</p><br>
<p>Twenty-nine breweries have existed in and around the village throughout its history.</p><br>
<h3>Hoster Brewing Dynasty</h3><br>
<p>While English breweries were found originally in the city, as German immigrants moved in, their brewing techniques were universally embraced and became the dominant methods for producing beer. is notably credited for this transformation when he opened the City Brewery in the 1830s. He would go on to serve on the City Council between 1846 and 1854 while establishing the city&#39;s first wollen mill in 1852. In 1864, he established the Louis Hoster & Sons Brewery, which became the Hoster Columbus Associated Breweries in 1904. He would also serve on the Board of Education and was a Unionist Democrat.</p><br>
<p>Later members of Louis Hoster&#39;s brewing dynasty included his son Louis Philip Hoster, president of the Columbus Structural Steel Company, Another son of George was Carl J. Hoster, graduate of Cornell University, and great-great uncle of former USA President George W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>Hoster Street in the German Village stretches six blocks between Lazelle and S. Front Streets.</p><br>
<h4>Dr. Herman A. Hoster, Jr.</h4><br>
<p>Dr. Herman A. Hoster, Jr. was the son of Herman Hoster, After learning of his illness, Dr. Hoster resigned his medical position with Yale to return home to Columbus. There he focused on research of the disease at Ohio State University. where he performed experiments on himself related to his illness, including some at Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit. He published several leading research papers, including support of radiation therapy to treat the disease.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Hoster became a charter member of the Hodgkins Disease Research Foundation in New York City, serving as the original President between 1947 and 1951. The first headquarters of the foundation was established at St. Vincents Hospital and included as board members Dr. Robert Chambers of New York University, Dr. Antonio Rottino, vice president of St. Vincent&#39;s Hospital, Dr. Harry Rolnick of Philadelphia, and John Finn, vice president of Fordham University.</p><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>In 2006, local media personality Andrea Cambern, in collaboration with the German Village Society and WBNS, narrated a 10-minute documentary short on the neighborhood, which won an Ohio Historic Preservation Office Award.</p><br>
<h3>Capital University</h3><br>
<p>In 1831, the German Evangelical Lutheran Seminary secured 14 acre in the south end, founded by William Schmidt, a graduate of the University of Halle in Germany. The school would go on to become what is known today as Capital University, still under the leadership of the Lutheran Church and now located in nearby Bexley.</p><br>
<h3>The arts and athletics</h3><br>
<p>The German immigrants brought with them a vibrant athletic and artistic heritage, which was reflected in their social establishments. The Columbus Maennerchor, a singing group, was established in 1848, and as early as 1852, won a ribbon for their talent at the North American Sangerfest. In 1866, the group won the silver pokal at a festival held in Louisville. In the late 19th century, another singing group called the Columbus Liederkranz was formed by the Germans, but was forced to cease during World War I because of heavy anti-German pressure. Many of its members joined the Maennerchor, which survived.</p><br>
<p>In the 1860s and 1870s the Maennerchor formed a drama division called the "Dramatischen Sektion." They would produce operas, dramas, and comedies until disbanding in the 1930s. One of their notable performances was their 1927 production of Friedrich von Schiller&#39;s Die Räuber.</p><br>
<p>The Columbus Turn Verein was a social and athletic (tumbling) association that dated back to 1866, and was a main organization from which the German immigrants drew mutual support. In the late 19th century the Turners merged with the Germania Gesang Verein, which hosted a Maennerchor and a Damenchor. Another merger enlarged the Germania in the late 1920s. The Germania merged with the Kicker’s Soccer Club, which for many years was a very active part of the organization. The club also now includes a Fahrrad Verein (Bicycle Club), which goes on weekend outings to bike trails throughout Central Ohio. The club&#39;s official name is now the Germania Gesang und Sport Verein (singing and sports club). The Germania Club itself was located in a residence on Kossuth Street, but outgrew its first facility. In 1927 it purchased the present location at 543 South Front Street from the estate of Nicolaus Schlee, one of the prestigious brewmasters of the neighborhood. The society is now located in the neighborhood known as the Brewery District of Columbus, which is the northernmost section of the German Village. Over the years the Germania Club has made it its mission to retain, promote and disseminate all that is good about German culture. A major component of this mission is the practice and performance of German song. Their choruses participate and support public events throughout Ohio during the year in appreciation for the community’s support. The Germania Club will celebrate its 147th anniversary in 2013 with an Oktoberfest that will feature its choruses.</p><br>
<p>In 1890, the Ohio State Buckeyes football team played their first-ever home game in the south end, at a location just west of present-day Schiller Park between Jaeger, Ebner, and Whittier (then called Schiller) Streets.</p><br>
<h2>Documentaries</h2><br>
<p>Lake Te Anau is in the southwestern corner of the South Island of New Zealand. The lake covers an area of 344 km&sup2, making it the second-largest lake by surface area in New Zealand  and the largest in the South Island. It is the largest lake in Australasia by fresh water volume.</p><br>
<p>The main body of the lake runs north-south, and is 65 km in length. Three large fiords form arms to the lake on its western flank: North Fiord, Middle Fiord and South Fiord. These are the only inland fiords that New Zealand has, the other 14 are out on the coast. Several small islands lie in the entrance to Middle Fiord, which forks partway along its length into northwest and southwest arms. The surface of the lake is at an altitude of 210 m. It has a maximum depth of 417 m, so much of its bed lies below sea level, with the deepest part of the lake being 226 metres below sea level.</p><br>
<p>Several rivers feed the lake, of which the most important is the Eglinton River, which joins the lake from the east, opposite the entrance to North Fiord. The outflow is the Waiau River, which flows south for several kilometres into Lake Manapouri. The town of Te Anau lies at the south-eastern corner of the lake, close to the outflow.</p><br>
<p>Most of the lake is within Fiordland National Park and the Te Wahipounamu World Heritage site, the latter of which was officially recognized internationally in 1990. Other than the Te Anau township, the only human habitation close to the lake is the farming settlement of Te Anau Downs, close to the mouth of the Eglinton River. Between these two settlements the land is rolling hill country, but elsewhere the land is mountainous, especially along its western shore, where the Kepler and Murchison Mountains rise 1,400 m above the surface of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Te Anau was important for the Ngai Tahu iwi in pre-European times as the area was a traditional stopping point on their trails between the east and west coasts of the South Island of New Zealand, where they obtained food and resources. The lake was first discovered by European explorers Charles Naim and William Stephen in 1852.</p><br>
<p>Two New Zealand Great Walks start at the lake. The Milford Track starts at the northern tip of the lake and the Kepler Track starts and ends at the south tip of the lake at the Waiau River.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The English translation of the Maori name Te Anau has been disputed. It was supposed by many that Te Anau was the name of the granddaughter of Hekeia, a chief of the Waitaha tribe, whose name now belongs to a mountain on the Longwood Range. When the Te Ana-au Caves were rediscovered in 1948, earlier explanations of the name were replaced by the interpretation of the full name Te Ana-au, Maori for The cave of swirling water.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Numerous species of wildlife and vegetation are found in the watershed of Lake Te Anau. Vegetative understory includes numerous fern species including the crown fern, Blechnum discolor.</p><br>
<p>Several species of endangered birds live around the shores of Lake Te Anau, notably the takahē (Notornis hochstetteri). An area between the Middle and South Fiords called the Murchison Mountains is a sanctuary set aside for these birds. The western shore of the lake also features the Te Ana-au Caves.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Throughout summer the lake is used for boating, fishing, kayaking, swimming and access to Fiordland National Park. The lake is home to both the Marakura Yacht Club and the Te Anau Boating Club. Every year on the weekend of Labour Day a fishing competition is held.</p><br>
<p>Bavarian Alps  is a summarizing term of several mountain ranges of the Northern Limestone Alps in the German state of Bavaria.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The term in its wider sense refers to that part of the Eastern Alps that lies on Bavarian state territory. However it is traditionally understood that the Bavarian Alps are only those ranges between the rivers Lech and Saalach (Altbayern). In this narrower sense, the Allgäu Alps in Swabia, which have only been part of Bavaria in more recent times, and the Berchtesgaden Alps in the east are not considered part of the Bavarian Alps.</p><br>
<p>The term is frequently used, but does not correspond to the common classification of the Eastern Alps (AVE) developed by the German, Austrian and South Tyrol Alpine Clubs. It should not be confused with the term Bavarian Prealps either. The latter only covers the Bavarian section of the prealps between the River Loisach in the west and the River Inn in the east.</p><br>
<p>According to the Italian Partizione delle Alpi classification, the Bavarian Alps (Alpi Bavaresi) comprise the Allgäu and Lechtal Alps as well as the adjacent Achen Lake mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Notable summits</h2><br>
<p>The Bavarian Alps in their broader sense include the following parts of the mountain ranges listed − in this tabular overview sorted according to AVE roughly from west to east and with maximum heights above sea level (NN). The highest peaks and elevations shown relate to that part of the mountain group that lies in Bavaria, and not to the overall group. For example, the highest mountain of the Allgäu Alps, the high Großer Krottenkopf, lies in Tyrol and is not shown in the table.</p><br>
<p>The highest peak in the Bavarian Alps and in Germany as a whole is the Zugspitze. It lies in the western part of the Wetterstein range and has a high Alpine character with its height of as well as its two small glaciers.</p><br>
<p>By clicking on the word "List" in the various rows of the Lists column, a list other mountains in the particular range may be viewed (noting that some of them will be outside Bavaria or the Bavarian Alps). The table may be sorted by clicking on the sort symbols in the column headers. in the southwest)</p><br>
<h2>Landscape</h2><br>
<p>Like the Alps as a whole, the Bavarian Alps as part of the Northern Limestone Alps were heavily influenced by the last ice age. Cirques, lakes and typical U-shaped valleys were formed by the glaciers. Depositions by ice age rivers and glaciers left behind a gently rolling landscape in the Alpine Foreland with lakes and bogs.</p><br>
<p>The Watzmann  is a mountain in the Bavarian Alps south of the village of Berchtesgaden. It is the third highest in Germany, and the highest located entirely on German territory.</p><br>
<p>Three main peaks array on a N-S axis along a ridge on the mountain&#39;s taller western half: Hocheck (2,651 m), Mittelspitze (Middle Peak, 2,713 m) and Südspitze (South Peak, 2,712 m).</p><br>
<p>The Watzmann massif also includes the 2,307 m Watzmannfrau (Watzmann Wife, also known as Kleiner Watzmann or Small Watzmann), and the Watzmannkinder (Watzmann Children), five lower peaks in the recess between the main peaks and the Watzmannfrau.</p><br>
<p>The entire massif lies inside Berchtesgaden National Park.</p><br>
<h2>Watzmann Glacier and other icefields</h2><br>
<p>The Watzmann Glacier is located below the famous east face of the Watzmann in the Watzmann cirque and is surrounded by the Watzmanngrat arête, the Watzmannkindern and the Kleiner Watzmann.</p><br>
<p>The size of the glacier reduced from around 30 hectare in 1820 until it split into a few fields of firn, but between 1965 and 1980 it advanced significantly again and now has an area of 10.1 hectare.</p><br>
<p>Above and to the west of the icefield lie the remains of a JU 52 transport-bomber that crashed in October 1940.</p><br>
<p>Amongst the other permanent snow and icefields the Eiskapelle ("Ice Chapel") is the best known due to its easy accessibility from St. Bartholomä. The Eiskapelle may well be the lowest lying permanent snowfield in the Alps. Its lower end is only 930 metres high in the upper Eisbach valley and is about an hour&#39;s walk from St. Bartholomä on the Königssee. The Eiskapelle is fed by mighty avalanches that slide down from the east face of the Watzmann in spring and accumulate in the angle of the rock face. Sometimes a gate-shaped vault forms in the ice at the point where the Eisbach emerges from the Eiskapelle. Before entering there is an urgent warning sign that others have been killed by falling ice.</p><br>
<p>In the east face itself is another icefield in the so-called Schöllhorn cirque, called the Schöllhorneis, which is crossed by the Kederbach Way (Kederbacher-Weg). The cirque and icefield are named after the Munich citizen, Christian Schöllhorn, who was the first victim on the east face. On 26 May 1890 he fell at the upper end of the icefield into the randkluft and was fatally injured. Another small nameless snowfield is located several hundred metres below the Mittelspitze also in the east face.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<h3>From the North</h3><br>
<p>The best climbing period is June through September, in some years October. The easiest route is to follow hiking trails from the village of Ramsau near the small town of Berchtesgaden up to the Watzmann Hut at 1,928 metres, such as hiking trail 441 from Wimbachbrücke. This is quoted as taking four hours, though an experienced hiker can do it in less than three. One typically spends the night there and then climbs to the summit the next morning. The climb from the hut to the Hocheck peak (2,651 m) is quite straightforward, though a head for heights is required on the peak. The Hocheck is around two hours from the Watzmann Hut. From the Hocheck, hikers can return to the hut or continue and traverse to the Mittelspitze and from there to the Südspitze. The traverse is more challenging, at the easier end of UIAA Class II, and very exposed - though permanent cables along the ridge makes the traverse safer. From the Südspitze, most hikers will not return to the Watzmann Hut but continue to descend into the Wimbachgrieß valley and from there back to Ramsau. One should estimate 12 to 17 hours for the complete circuit, stable weather conditions are essential as drastic weather change on the ridge between the peaks can be fatal.</p><br>
<h3>East Face</h3><br>
<p>A much more serious and challenging climb is the famous East Face (Watzmann-Ostwand), which rises from the Hirschau peninsula at lake Königssee to the main peaks in a vertical ascent of around 1,800 metres (the longest wall in the Eastern Alps). While the easiest routes through the east wall is rated UIAA Class III, the wall has claimed almost 100 lives so far. Difficulties include the length of the climb, route-finding, and deteriorating weather conditions approaching from west, the predominant direction for weather change in the area, difficult to ascertain from the face. A simple emergency shelter has been erected in the wall. Even experienced climbers are advised to hire a local guide for the wall as finding the route can be challenging.</p><br>
